The Beautiful Tree (47 page)
Read The Beautiful Tree Online
Authors: James Tooley
2
There is one oddity, however, that the development experts might feel reinforces their argument about the need for regulation. That is, when one visits recognized and unrecognized private schools, the recognized schools do often appear to be better than the unrecognized ones. (The evidence outlined in the next chapter reinforces this intuition.) They often appear to have better infrastructure and better-equipped classrooms. Teachers seem to speak better English. However, if becoming recognized has nothing to do with actually meeting regulations, just with the payment of bribes, then why should they be better?
There is one oddity, however, that the development experts might feel reinforces their argument about the need for regulation. That is, when one visits recognized and unrecognized private schools, the recognized schools do often appear to be better than the unrecognized ones. (The evidence outlined in the next chapter reinforces this intuition.) They often appear to have better infrastructure and better-equipped classrooms. Teachers seem to speak better English. However, if becoming recognized has nothing to do with actually meeting regulations, just with the payment of bribes, then why should they be better?
It took me awhile to think this through, but it seems the answer lies in the fact that many of the ways in which recognized schools are better than unrecognized private schools are not prescribed in the detailed regulations. In Hyderabad, for instance, no regulations address the provision of learning facilities, such as televisions, tape recorders and computers, or fans. Yet with these facilities, just as with those that regulations address, like playgrounds, drinking water, and toilets, the recognized private schools seem to be better than the unrecognized schools. This suggests that the impetus for school improvement comes from other factors, not from a desire to be recognized by government. The obvious one is to meet parental demand.
But then, the development experts could counter, why don’t the unrecognized schools also strive to meet parental demand in the same way, since they’re also operating in the education market and will also need to keep parents happy? The reasons are not hard to find. In every study, I found that unrecognized private schools are considerably smaller and considerably newer than recognized private schools. What seems most likely to me is that the maturity of the schools, rather than regulation, is responsible for their improvement. Private schools improve as they become more mature, attracting more students, and, hence, can afford to invest in more and better facilities, and more motivated teachers. As they mature, they can also afford the informal payments to gain recognition. Why would they bother paying for recognition? Because being recognized does have its benefits: Only recognized schools can issue transfer certificates, which enable children to move from their school to the next stage. Only recognized schools can legally be examination centers.
3
Sources cited in this section are, in order, Save the Children UK, South and Central Asia, “A Perspective from Nepal and Pakistan,” p. 10; UNICEF, submission to “The Private Sector as Service Provider,” pp. 11-12; and World Bank,
World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work for Poor People
(Washington: World Bank, 2003), pp. 47, 49, 52 (emphasis added), 6, 55, 6-7, 115, 60, 56, 6, 8, 57, 124, 57, and 124.
Chapter 9Sources cited in this section are, in order, Save the Children UK, South and Central Asia, “A Perspective from Nepal and Pakistan,” p. 10; UNICEF, submission to “The Private Sector as Service Provider,” pp. 11-12; and World Bank,
World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work for Poor People
(Washington: World Bank, 2003), pp. 47, 49, 52 (emphasis added), 6, 55, 6-7, 115, 60, 56, 6, 8, 57, 124, 57, and 124.
1
See E. A. Hanushek, “The Failure of Input-Based Schooling Policies,”
Economic Journal
113, no. 485 (2003): F64-F98; and A. B. Krueger, “Economic Considerations and Class Size,”
Economic Journal
113, no. 485 (2003): F34-F63.
See E. A. Hanushek, “The Failure of Input-Based Schooling Policies,”
Economic Journal
113, no. 485 (2003): F64-F98; and A. B. Krueger, “Economic Considerations and Class Size,”
Economic Journal
113, no. 485 (2003): F34-F63.
2
Nandan Nilekani,
Imagining India: Ideas for the New Century
(New Delhi: Allen Lane, Penguin, 2008), pp. 92-93.
Nandan Nilekani,
Imagining India: Ideas for the New Century
(New Delhi: Allen Lane, Penguin, 2008), pp. 92-93.
5
A. Mingat and C. Winter, “Education for All by 2015,”
Finance and Development
39, no. 1 (2002): 1-6; and M. Zymelman and J. Destefano, “Primary School Teachers Salaries in Sub-Saharan Africa,” Division Paper no. 45, World Bank, Washington, 1989.
A. Mingat and C. Winter, “Education for All by 2015,”
Finance and Development
39, no. 1 (2002): 1-6; and M. Zymelman and J. Destefano, “Primary School Teachers Salaries in Sub-Saharan Africa,” Division Paper no. 45, World Bank, Washington, 1989.
6
See, for example, A. Dabalen and B. Oni, “Labor Market Prospects of University Graduates in Nigeria,” World Bank, Washington, 2000.
Chapter 10See, for example, A. Dabalen and B. Oni, “Labor Market Prospects of University Graduates in Nigeria,” World Bank, Washington, 2000.
1
Sources cited in this section are, in order, PROBE Team,
Public Report on Basic Education in India
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 105-6; K. Watkins, “Private Education and ‘Education for All’—or How Not to Construct an Evidence-Based Argument,”
Economic Affairs
24, no. 4 (2004): 11; World Bank,
World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work for Poor People
(Washington: World Bank, 2003), pp. 3, 10-11, and 33; UNDP,
Human Development Report 2003
(New York: UNDP, 2003), p. 111; World Bank, p. 4; UNDP, p. 93; K. Watkins,
The Oxfam Education Report
(Oxford: Oxfam in Great Britain, 2000), pp. 207 and 230; PROBE Team, p. 105; UNDP, p. 115; World Bank, pp. 6 and 9; Watkins,
Oxfam Education Report
, p. 232; UNDP, p. 111; World Bank, p. 33; UNDP, p. 1; World Education Forum,
The Dakar Framework for Action, Education for All: Meeting Our Collective Commitments
(Paris: UNESCO, 2000), p. 8 (emphasis added); UNESCO,
Education for All: Is the World on Track?
EFA Global Monitoring Report 2002 (Paris: UNESCO, 2002), p. 29; UNESCO, “Education for All: Meeting Our Collective Commitments, Expanded Commentary on the Dakar Framework for Action,” Paris, 2000a, pp. 14 (emphasis added) and 15 (emphasis added),
www.unesco.org/education/efa/wef_2000/expanded_com_eng.shtml
; World Bank, p. 3; UNDP, p. 111; A. Sen,
Development as Freedom
(New York: Knopf, 1999), p. 129; World Bank, pp. 11 and 54-55; UNDP, p. 111.
Sources cited in this section are, in order, PROBE Team,
Public Report on Basic Education in India
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 105-6; K. Watkins, “Private Education and ‘Education for All’—or How Not to Construct an Evidence-Based Argument,”
Economic Affairs
24, no. 4 (2004): 11; World Bank,
World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work for Poor People
(Washington: World Bank, 2003), pp. 3, 10-11, and 33; UNDP,
Human Development Report 2003
(New York: UNDP, 2003), p. 111; World Bank, p. 4; UNDP, p. 93; K. Watkins,
The Oxfam Education Report
(Oxford: Oxfam in Great Britain, 2000), pp. 207 and 230; PROBE Team, p. 105; UNDP, p. 115; World Bank, pp. 6 and 9; Watkins,
Oxfam Education Report
, p. 232; UNDP, p. 111; World Bank, p. 33; UNDP, p. 1; World Education Forum,
The Dakar Framework for Action, Education for All: Meeting Our Collective Commitments
(Paris: UNESCO, 2000), p. 8 (emphasis added); UNESCO,
Education for All: Is the World on Track?
EFA Global Monitoring Report 2002 (Paris: UNESCO, 2002), p. 29; UNESCO, “Education for All: Meeting Our Collective Commitments, Expanded Commentary on the Dakar Framework for Action,” Paris, 2000a, pp. 14 (emphasis added) and 15 (emphasis added),
www.unesco.org/education/efa/wef_2000/expanded_com_eng.shtml
; World Bank, p. 3; UNDP, p. 111; A. Sen,
Development as Freedom
(New York: Knopf, 1999), p. 129; World Bank, pp. 11 and 54-55; UNDP, p. 111.
2
Sources for this paragraph and the next are E. G. West,
Education and the State,
3rd ed. (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1994); A. J. Coulson,
Market Education: The Unknown History
(New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1999); J. Tooley,
Reclaiming Education
(London: Continuum, 2000); J. Tooley and J. Stanfield, eds.,
Government Failure: E. G. West on Education
(London: Profile Books, 2003); Education Committee, UK National Commission for UNESCO,
Education for All: United Kingdom Perspectives
(Slough: NFER, 2003), pp. 6 and 24; and B. Geldof, Foreword to
The Rough Guide to a Better World
, by M. Wroe and M. Doney (London: Rough Guides in association with DfID, 2004), pp. 5-6.
Chapter 11Sources for this paragraph and the next are E. G. West,
Education and the State,
3rd ed. (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1994); A. J. Coulson,
Market Education: The Unknown History
(New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1999); J. Tooley,
Reclaiming Education
(London: Continuum, 2000); J. Tooley and J. Stanfield, eds.,
Government Failure: E. G. West on Education
(London: Profile Books, 2003); Education Committee, UK National Commission for UNESCO,
Education for All: United Kingdom Perspectives
(Slough: NFER, 2003), pp. 6 and 24; and B. Geldof, Foreword to
The Rough Guide to a Better World
, by M. Wroe and M. Doney (London: Rough Guides in association with DfID, 2004), pp. 5-6.
1
William Dalrymple,
White Mughals: Love and Betrayal in Eighteenth-Century India
(London: Harper-Collins, 2002), pp. xliii and xliv.
William Dalrymple,
White Mughals: Love and Betrayal in Eighteenth-Century India
(London: Harper-Collins, 2002), pp. xliii and xliv.
2
All quotes are from Dharampal,
The Beautiful Tree: Indigenous Indian Education in the Eighteenth Century
(Coimbatore: Keerthi Publishing House, 1995), p. 355.
All quotes are from Dharampal,
The Beautiful Tree: Indigenous Indian Education in the Eighteenth Century
(Coimbatore: Keerthi Publishing House, 1995), p. 355.
3
Thomas Munro, 1822, in Dharampal, p. 83.
Thomas Munro, 1822, in Dharampal, p. 83.
4
T. Harris, 1822, in Dharampal, p. 88.
T. Harris, 1822, in Dharampal, p. 88.
5
Dharampal, pp. 18-19 and 34-35.
Dharampal, pp. 18-19 and 34-35.
6
Sources cited in this paragraph are, in order, Thomas Munro, 1826, in Dharampal, p. 249; Dharampal, pp. 62-63; Sivaramakrishnan, Afterword to
The Beautiful Tree: Indigenous Indian Education in the Eighteenth Century
, by Dharampal (Coimbatore: Keerthi Publishing House, 1995), p. 439; and Dharampal, p. 22.
Sources cited in this paragraph are, in order, Thomas Munro, 1826, in Dharampal, p. 249; Dharampal, pp. 62-63; Sivaramakrishnan, Afterword to
The Beautiful Tree: Indigenous Indian Education in the Eighteenth Century
, by Dharampal (Coimbatore: Keerthi Publishing House, 1995), p. 439; and Dharampal, p. 22.
7
Sources cited in this section are, in order, William Adam, 1841, in Dharampal, p. 268 (emphasis added); Dharampal, p. 12; and G. W. Leitner, 1883, in Dharampal, p. 349.
Sources cited in this section are, in order, William Adam, 1841, in Dharampal, p. 268 (emphasis added); Dharampal, p. 12; and G. W. Leitner, 1883, in Dharampal, p. 349.
8
William Cooke, 1823, in Dharampal.
William Cooke, 1823, in Dharampal.
9
Adam, 1841, in Dharampal.
Adam, 1841, in Dharampal.
10
Dharampal seemed to have a blind spot here. He wrote that it was the “sophisticated operative fiscal arrangements of the pre-British Indian polity” that assigned tax revenue to “make such education possible” (p. 15). However, he admitted that this conclusion was “still tentative, and in statistical terms somewhat speculative” (p. 15), which was odd, given that elsewhere he had always been extremely careful to avoid any such speculation. But then his
justification
for the conclusion makes it clear why he went for it, even if not based on firm evidence: “To suppose that such a deep-rooted and extensive system which really catered to all sections of society was maintained on the basis of tuition fees, or through not only gratuitous teaching but also feeding of the pupils by the teachers, is to be grossly ignorant of the actual functioning of any system, or society” (p. 67). In other words, Dharampal was claiming that the education system must be publicly funded because he didn’t believe a system of education could be anything
other
than publicly funded. In my research, of course, I’d uncovered precisely a fully functioning system of education that depended
entirely
on tuition fees and a little philanthropy. So it was not logically impossible, as Dharampal implied. It seemed, as all the evidence in his book suggested, that he’d missed a trick because of his assumption here.
Dharampal seemed to have a blind spot here. He wrote that it was the “sophisticated operative fiscal arrangements of the pre-British Indian polity” that assigned tax revenue to “make such education possible” (p. 15). However, he admitted that this conclusion was “still tentative, and in statistical terms somewhat speculative” (p. 15), which was odd, given that elsewhere he had always been extremely careful to avoid any such speculation. But then his
justification
for the conclusion makes it clear why he went for it, even if not based on firm evidence: “To suppose that such a deep-rooted and extensive system which really catered to all sections of society was maintained on the basis of tuition fees, or through not only gratuitous teaching but also feeding of the pupils by the teachers, is to be grossly ignorant of the actual functioning of any system, or society” (p. 67). In other words, Dharampal was claiming that the education system must be publicly funded because he didn’t believe a system of education could be anything
other
than publicly funded. In my research, of course, I’d uncovered precisely a fully functioning system of education that depended
entirely
on tuition fees and a little philanthropy. So it was not logically impossible, as Dharampal implied. It seemed, as all the evidence in his book suggested, that he’d missed a trick because of his assumption here.
11
The source cited in this paragraph is T. Fraser, 1823, in Dharampal, pp. 152-53.
The source cited in this paragraph is T. Fraser, 1823, in Dharampal, pp. 152-53.
12
Sources cited in this paragraph are, in order, J. Sullivan, 1822, in Dharampal, p. 100; and J. Vaughan, 1823, in Dharampal, p. 199.
Sources cited in this paragraph are, in order, J. Sullivan, 1822, in Dharampal, p. 100; and J. Vaughan, 1823, in Dharampal, p. 199.
13
See Dharampal, p. 66.
See Dharampal, p. 66.
14
C. Hyde, 1823, in Dharampal, p. 145 (emphasis added).
C. Hyde, 1823, in Dharampal, p. 145 (emphasis added).
15
J. Dent, 1825, in Dharampal, p. 228.
J. Dent, 1825, in Dharampal, p. 228.
16
Dharampal, p. 355.
Dharampal, p. 355.
17
References in this section are, in order, to Philip Hartog,
Some Aspects of Indian Education Past and Present
, University of London, Institute of Education, Studies and Reports no. VII (London: Oxford University Press, Humphrey Milford, 1939), pp. vii, 11 (emphasis added), 69ff, 72, and 15.
References in this section are, in order, to Philip Hartog,
Some Aspects of Indian Education Past and Present
, University of London, Institute of Education, Studies and Reports no. VII (London: Oxford University Press, Humphrey Milford, 1939), pp. vii, 11 (emphasis added), 69ff, 72, and 15.
18
A. D. Campbell, 1823, in Dharampal, p. 182.
A. D. Campbell, 1823, in Dharampal, p. 182.
20
L. G. K. Murray, 1822, in Dharampal, p. 113 (emphasis added).
L. G. K. Murray, 1822, in Dharampal, p. 113 (emphasis added).
21
H. Vibart, 1822, in Dharampal, p. 94.
H. Vibart, 1822, in Dharampal, p. 94.
22
S. Smalley, 1823, in Dharampal, p. 144.
S. Smalley, 1823, in Dharampal, p. 144.
23
Munro, 1826, in Dharampal, p. 249.
Munro, 1826, in Dharampal, p. 249.
24
Adam, 1841, in Dharampal, p. 268.
Adam, 1841, in Dharampal, p. 268.
25
Ibid., p. 272.
Ibid., p. 272.
26
Ibid., p. 273.
Ibid., p. 273.
27
Ibid., p. 277.
Ibid., p. 277.
28
Dharampal, p. 14.
Dharampal, p. 14.
29
References in this paragraph are to Adam, 1841, in Dharampal, p. 277.
References in this paragraph are to Adam, 1841, in Dharampal, p. 277.
30
House of Commons Papers, 1831-32, vol. 9, p. 468, in Dharampal, p. 383.
House of Commons Papers, 1831-32, vol. 9, p. 468, in Dharampal, p. 383.
31
References in this and next paragraph are to Campbell, 1823, in Dharampal, pp. 179 (emphasis added), 182 (emphasis added), and 179.
References in this and next paragraph are to Campbell, 1823, in Dharampal, pp. 179 (emphasis added), 182 (emphasis added), and 179.
32
Quoted in Dharampal, p. 260 (emphasis added).
Quoted in Dharampal, p. 260 (emphasis added).
33
J. M. D. Meiklejohn,
An Old Educational Reformer: Dr Andrew Bell
(Edinburgh: William Blackwood and Sons, 1881), pp. 1, 6, 61, and 83.
J. M. D. Meiklejohn,
An Old Educational Reformer: Dr Andrew Bell
(Edinburgh: William Blackwood and Sons, 1881), pp. 1, 6, 61, and 83.
34
A. Bell,
Mutual Tuition and Moral Discipline; or Manual of Instructions for Conducting Schools through the Agency of the Scholars Themselves
, 7th ed. (London: Hatchard and Son, 1823), p. 25 or 21 (page numbers inconsistent in original; emphasis in the original).
A. Bell,
Mutual Tuition and Moral Discipline; or Manual of Instructions for Conducting Schools through the Agency of the Scholars Themselves
, 7th ed. (London: Hatchard and Son, 1823), p. 25 or 21 (page numbers inconsistent in original; emphasis in the original).
37
References in this and the next paragraph are to Munro, 1826, in Dharampal, pp. 251, 250, 249, and 251.
References in this and the next paragraph are to Munro, 1826, in Dharampal, pp. 251, 250, 249, and 251.
38
References in this and the next four paragraphs are to Y. Vittal Rao,
Education and Learning in Andhra under the East India Company
(Secunderabad: N. Vidyaranya Swamy, 1979), pp. 82, 82, 79, 81-82, 83-84, and 84.
References in this and the next four paragraphs are to Y. Vittal Rao,
Education and Learning in Andhra under the East India Company
(Secunderabad: N. Vidyaranya Swamy, 1979), pp. 82, 82, 79, 81-82, 83-84, and 84.
39
T. B. Macaulay, “Minute of 2 February 1835 on Indian Education,” in
Macaulay, Prose and Poetry
, selected by G. M. Young (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1957), pp. 721-24 and 729.
T. B. Macaulay, “Minute of 2 February 1835 on Indian Education,” in
Macaulay, Prose and Poetry
, selected by G. M. Young (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1957), pp. 721-24 and 729.
40
References in this and the next paragraph are to Y. V. Rao,
Education and Learning in Andhra
, pp. 192 and 214-15.
References in this and the next paragraph are to Y. V. Rao,
Education and Learning in Andhra
, pp. 192 and 214-15.
41
Sources cited in this and the next two paragraphs are, in order, J. Mill,
Edinburgh Review
, October 1813, quoted in E. G. West,
Education and the State,
3rd ed. (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1994), pp. 170 and 171; 1851 Census, p. CXXXIV-V, quoted in West,
Education and the State
, p. 175; West,
Education and the State
, p. 175; E. G. West, “Nineteenth-Century Educational History: The Kiesling Critique,”
Economic History Review
36 (1983): 427; West,
Education and the State
, p. 173.
Sources cited in this and the next two paragraphs are, in order, J. Mill,
Edinburgh Review
, October 1813, quoted in E. G. West,
Education and the State,
3rd ed. (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1994), pp. 170 and 171; 1851 Census, p. CXXXIV-V, quoted in West,
Education and the State
, p. 175; West,
Education and the State
, p. 175; E. G. West, “Nineteenth-Century Educational History: The Kiesling Critique,”
Economic History Review
36 (1983): 427; West,
Education and the State
, p. 173.
42
Dharampal, p. 355.
Dharampal, p. 355.
43
See Peng Deng,
Private Education in Modern China
(Westport, CT: Praeger, 1997); Zhiyi He,
The Socio-Economic Study on Private Education in Guangdong
(Guangzhou, China: Guangdong People’s Publishing House, 2001); Thomas H. C. Lee,
Education in Traditional China: A History
(Leiden, Neth.: Brill, 2000); and Jing A. Lin,
Social Transformation and Private Education in China
(Westport, CT: Praeger, 1999).
See Peng Deng,
Private Education in Modern China
(Westport, CT: Praeger, 1997); Zhiyi He,
The Socio-Economic Study on Private Education in Guangdong
(Guangzhou, China: Guangdong People’s Publishing House, 2001); Thomas H. C. Lee,
Education in Traditional China: A History
(Leiden, Neth.: Brill, 2000); and Jing A. Lin,
Social Transformation and Private Education in China
(Westport, CT: Praeger, 1999).
45
Kikuyu Province Annual Report, 1929, p. 17.
Kikuyu Province Annual Report, 1929, p. 17.
46
World Bank,
World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work for Poor People
(Washington: World Bank, 2003), p. 15; and B. Geldof, Foreword to
The Rough Guide to a Better World
, by M. Wroe and M. Doney (London: Rough Guides in association with DfID, 2004), p. 5.
Chapter 12World Bank,
World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work for Poor People
(Washington: World Bank, 2003), p. 15; and B. Geldof, Foreword to
The Rough Guide to a Better World
, by M. Wroe and M. Doney (London: Rough Guides in association with DfID, 2004), p. 5.
1
W. Easterly,
The White Man’s Burden: Why the West’s Efforts to Aid the Rest Have Done So Much Ill and So Little Good
(New York: Penguin Press, 2006), pp. 1 and 384.
W. Easterly,
The White Man’s Burden: Why the West’s Efforts to Aid the Rest Have Done So Much Ill and So Little Good
(New York: Penguin Press, 2006), pp. 1 and 384.
2
Ibid., p. 5.
Ibid., p. 5.
3
Ibid., p. 175.
Ibid., p. 175.
4
W. Easterly,
The Elusive Quest for Growth: Economists’ Adventures and Misadventures in the Tropics
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001), p. xii.
W. Easterly,
The Elusive Quest for Growth: Economists’ Adventures and Misadventures in the Tropics
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001), p. xii.
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