The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (2698 page)

(1795–1862)
. Christian missionary to the Jews (and others) of the orient. Although the son of a
rabbi
, Wolff converted to Christianity and devoted the latter part of his life to bringing the Christian message to the Jews of Palestine, Mesopotamia, Turkey, Persia, Kurdistan, Khurasan, Bukhara, India, and the Yemen. He wrote several accounts of his travels which provide lively and interesting details about the eastern communities.

 
Back
  -  
 
New Search

see
TAIZO-KAI MANDARA
;
SHINGON
.

 
Back
  -  
 
New Search

Women
.

The status of women in religions has, in the past, been tied closely to the reproductive cycle, both that of humans, and that of crops and herds. The controls of evolution and of natural selection (of course not known or understood) established boundaries within which, either the replication of genes and the nurture of children succeeded, or the family/group/community/village went to extinction. Religions, as the earliest cultural systems of which we know, have created strong protections for replication and nurture, often by way of controls over behaviour—hence the preoccupation of religions with sexual behaviours and food. Characteristically, societies developed a necessary division of labour, based on biology but extended symbolically, with women responsible for the upbringing of the family and for related activities in preparation of food (both in cooking and in the fields), and with men relating to a wider environment, e.g. in hunting, warfare, political relations. The feminine is thus often celebrated in religions as the source of life and gift of fertility. There is some (disputed) evidence that the feminine, as Mother Goddess, was the primordial focus of worship: at a time when the male contribution to reproduction was not realized, this is unsurprising. Equally unsurprising (from a genetic point of view) is the way in which men consequently took control of the reproductive cycle. That control is mirrored in the increasing dominance of patriarchal religion. Even in India, where the feminine has remained central in worship, and where the Goddess may still be the single focus of devotion for many Hindus, the Goddess on her own is usually destructive and fierce, and only fruitful in relation to a consort, such as
iva. The subordination of women to men became widespread in all religions: exceptions are very much exceptions to the rule. Combined with profound fears about the dangers surrounding sexuality (elaborated in complex ritual customs to deal with
‘purity and danger’
, the title of a relevant study by Mary Douglas), this led to literal separations of women from men, especially in worship (for example, in
synagogue
or
mosque
or in the
Roman Catholic
refusal of the
ordination
of women, or, until 1992, of girl servers near the altar).
While it is true that the increasing emancipation of women in many parts of the world has led to major adjustments in the place accorded to women in most religions, the phrase
‘place accorded to’
reveals the continuing truth: men remain predominantly in control and allow some women some greater access to authority and decision-making. A classic example was the
‘Letter to All Women’
issued by Pope John Paul II in 1995. While it was remarkable in apologizing for the oppressive record of the Church in relation to women, the document as a whole adopted the usual male strategy of congratulating women on the gifts of their characteristic natures, while at the same time making it clear that those natures prohibited women from undertaking certain roles reserved for men.
Judaism
The Hebrew scriptures teach that woman was created as a ‘helper’ to men (Genesis 2. 23–4). Her chief duty was to be child-bearing (Genesis 3. 16), and a good wife and mother was cause for praise (Proverbs 31. 28). The
rabbis
exempted women from all timebound positive commandments (see
SIX HUNDRED AND THIRTEEN COMMANDMENTS
) (
Kid
. 1. 7), and female education was not encouraged. In 1994, a Commission, convened by the Chief Rabbi of the UK, issued a far-ranging report on the status of women in Orthodox Judaism, recommending that the exclusion of women from
kaddish
, the separation of women from men in synagogue by
mechitzah
(‘partition’) should be ended or modified, and that a prenuptial covenant, guaranteeing the supply of the
get
(bill of divorce: see
MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE
,
JUDAISM
) in the case of divorce, should be supplied.
Progressive
Jews stress the absolute equality of men and women and have female as well as male rabbis,
cantors
, and
synagogue
leaders. See also
NIDDAH
.
Christianity
Early Christianity was an egalitarian movement in which women played a prominent part. Not only did Jesus give and receive much in ministry to and from women (with an openness which went against the norms of his day), but women clearly played an important part in the life and running of the early Church. The early churches reaffirmed traditional and cultural attitudes, leading to the continuing subordination of women to the authority of their husbands, and to men in the Church (e.g. 1 Corinthians 14. 34; Ephesians 5. 22 f.; Colossians 3. 18; 1 Timothy 2. 11 f.; Titus 2. 4f.). The Church subsequently has endeavoured (generally speaking) to confirm that subordinate status of women. The Church has thus, historically, admired women from a distance, insisting on their special and higher vocations, while at the same time regarding them as inherently the source of sin, because of their descent from
Eve
, and certainly not to be admitted to the male preserves of decision-making and priesthood. The Virgin
Mary
became the role model, calling sexuality into question and exhibiting the way to salvation through perfect obedience. Yet clearly there are many RC and Orthodox Christians who are, despite discouragement, committed to the realization within time of that final vision, in which the Christian attitude to all oppressed groups is summarized, when there shall be
‘neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male and female’
(Galatians 3. 28).
Islam
In Islam, it is believed that women and men are different but equal. The advent of Islam brought great advantages to the status and protection of women, and women, especially
isha, played an important part in the early years of Islam, as they have continued to do. Women are not the source of sin (Eve,
aww
, is not named in the
Qur
n
, which makes it clear that both Adam and Eve were equally at fault: see e.g. 2. 36 f.), though they may be the source of particular impurity after childbirth and menstruation. Women, and mothers in particular, are deeply honoured. Women have access to education and retain control of their own property. At the same time, certain inequalities between women and men, together with the fact that some customs have become virtual obligations in some parts of the Muslim world, have raised questions about the implementation of Qur’
n and
ad
th