The Cyber Effect (49 page)

Formal or informal codes of conduct
: Group socialization is described in R. Moreland and J. Levine (1982), “Socialization in Small Groups: Temporal Changes in Individual-Group Relations,” in L. Berkowitz (ed.),
Advances in Experimental Social Psychology
vol. 15 (New York: Academic Press), 137–92.

the golden age of piracy
: The privateers and buccaneers who took their orders from governments seeking trade routes and scores against the vessels of rival nations lost their commissions in peacetime; many put their skills to use as pirates, though their careers were often limited to one or two years. See
thewayof​thepi​rates.​com
(2016).

lawlessness that impacts all of us
: M. P. Aiken, C. McMahon, C. Haughton, L. O'Neill, and E. O'Carroll (2015), “A Consideration of the Social Impact of Cybercrime: Examples from Hacking, Piracy, and Child Abuse Material Online,”
Contemporary Social Science: Journal of the Academy of Social Sciences
. DOI: 10. 1080/21582041.2015.1117648.

“free” virus-laden malware
: “Social engineering is a component of many—if not most—types of exploits. Virus writers use social engineering tactics to persuade people to run malware-laden email attachments, phishers use social engineering to convince people to divulge sensitive information, and scareware vendors use social engineering to frighten people into running software that is useless at best and dangerous at worst”: S. Guvakuva, “What is Social Engineering,”
technomag.​co.​zw
, December 3, 2015.

the Deep Web refers to
: Dr. Jill Ellsworth first used the term
invisible Web
to refer to poorly marketed websites such as one reasonably designed but not registered with any of the search engines, so no one can find it. See F. Garcia (1996), “Business and Marketing on the Internet,”
TCP Online
9(1), January (accessed August 24, 2015, via the Wayback Machine Internet Archive). Difficulties with this term and the first use of the now-preferred
Deep Web
are to be found in the study of Internet expert Mark Bergman (2001), “White Paper: The Deep Web: Surfacing Hidden Value,”
The Journal of Electronic Publishing
7(1).

Darknets refer to what is deliberately hidden
: A. Greenberg, “Hacker Lexicon: What Is the Dark Web?,”
Wired
, November 19, 2014.

digital black market has grown
: “Going Dark: The Internet Behind the Internet,” National Public Radio, May 25, 2014,
npr.​org
.

one Darknet tutorial
: “How to Access THE HIDDEN WIKI (Deep Web, Secret Internet),”
TheBot.​net
, March 20, 2011.

McDumpals, one of the leading sites
: B. Krebs, “Peek Inside a Professional Carding Shop,”
krebson​security.​com
, June 14, 2014.

gamble on the actual time of execution
: “The Disturbing World of the Deep Web, Where Contract Killers and Drug Dealers Ply Their Trade on the Internet,”
dailymail.​co.​uk
, October 11, 2013.

Ross Ulbricht
: The biography of Ross Ulbricht and the story of the Silk Road is taken from D. Kushner, “Dead End on Silk Road: Internet Crime Kingpin Ross Ulbricht's Big Fall,”
Rolling Stone
, February 4, 2014; and M. J. Barratt, J. A. Ferris, and A. R. Winstock (2014), “Use of Silk Road, the Online Drug Marketplace, in the United Kingdom, Australia and the United States,”
Addiction
109: 774–83.

the writings of Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises
: For the life and work of economist and social philosopher Ludwig von Mises, see the profile at the Institute bearing his name:
mises.​org/​profile/​ludwig-​von-​mises
; and A. Carden, “The Greatest Thinker You've Never Read: Ludwig von Mises,”
Forbes
, September 29, 2012.

Silk Road attracted a base
: Financial Action Task Force, “FATF Report: Virtual Currencies: Key Definitions and Potential AML/CFT Risks,”
fatf-​gafi.​org
, June 11, 2014.

18 percent of drug consumers
: M. J. Barratt, J. A. Ferris, and A. R. Winstock (2014), “Use of Silk Road, the Online Drug Marketplace in the United Kingdom, Australia and the United States,”
Addiction
109: 774–83.

Due to some missteps online
: D. Leinwand Leger, “A Behind-the-Scenes Look at the Federal Agents' Digital Detective Work,”
usatoday.​com
, May 15, 2014.

Being cold, overstimulated, or confused
: E. Anthes, “Outside In: It's So Loud, I Can't Hear My Budget!,”
psychology​today.​com
, September 1, 2010.

Silk Road created drug users
: S. Thielman, “Silk Road Operator Ross Ulbricht Sentenced to Life in Prison,”
The Guardian
, May 29, 2015.

Ulbricht pleaded for leniency
: Most of the letters submitted to the court in
support of Ross Ulbricht prior to his sentencing are available online: see
documentcloud.​org/​documents/​2086667-​gov-uscourts-​nysd-422824-​251-2.xhtmll#​document/​p14/​a220146
.

“eliminated every obstacle”
: K. McCoy, “Silk Road Founder Hit with Life Imprisonment,”
usatoday.​com
, June 1, 2015.

“In the late hours of Tuesday night”
: C. Dewey, “You Can Take Down Pirate Bay, but You Can't Kill the Internet It Created,”
The Washington Post
, December 10, 2014.

the impact of peer-to-peer file-sharing
: For statistics and the music industry's views on digital piracy, see the FAQ section of the Recording Industry Association of America's website,
riaa.​com
.

“
Game of Thrones
is the most pirated show”
: P. Tassi, “ ‘Game of Thrones' Sets Piracy World Record, but Does HBO Care?,”
Forbes
, April 15, 2014.

It costs HBO about $6 million
: E. Sheppard, “Here's How Much It Costs to Make a ‘Game of Thrones' Episode,”
Mic.​com
, April 8, 2014. See also M. Russon, “Game of Thrones season 5 breaks piracy record with 32 million illegal downloads so far,” April 22, 2015,
ibtimes.​co.​uk
.

anonymity and online disinhibition
: Online disinhibition is explored in J. Suler (2004), “The Online Disinhibition Effect,”
CyberPsychology and Behavior
7(3): 321–26.

If enough people are breaking a law
: S. Altschuller and R. Benbunan-Fich (2009), “Is Music Downloading the New Prohibition? What Students Reveal Through an Ethical Dilemma,”
Ethics and Information Technology
11(1): 49–56.

like the fifteen-year-old boy in Sweden
: M. Humphries (2011), “15-Year-Old Facing Jail Time for Downloading 24 Movies,”
geek.​com
, August 24, 2011.

A new norm has effectively been created
: S. Altschuller and R. Benbunan-Fich (2009), “Is Music Downloading the New Prohibition? What Students Reveal Through an Ethical Dilemma,”
Ethics and Information Technology
11(1): 49–56. See also T. Wingrove, A. L. Korpas, and V. Weisz (2011), “Why Were Millions of People
Not
Obeying the Law? Motivational Influences on Non-Compliance with the Law in the Case of Music Piracy,”
Psychology, Crime and Law
17(3): 261–76.

A move to decriminalize piracy
: C. Green, “New Internet Piracy Warning Letters Rules Dismissed as ‘Toothless,' ”
The Independent
, July 23, 2014.

it appears the pirates have won
: S. Hamedy, “Report: Online Piracy Remains Multi-Hundred-Million-Dollar Business,”
Los Angeles Times
, May 19, 2015.

“Another one got caught today”
: Originally called “The Conscience of a Hacker,” the manifesto was written after Loyd Blankenship was arrested and was published in an online magazine under his pseudonym “The Mentor”:
Phrack
1(7), January 8, 1986. For its continued relevance today, see S. Ragan, “The Hacker's Manifesto Turns 29 Years Old,”
csoonline.​com
, January 8, 2015.

criminal hackers share a set of personality traits
: D. Littlejohn Shinder and M. Cross (2008),
Scene of the Cybercrime
(Burlington, Mass.: Elsevier); and Shinder's blog,
techre​public.​com
. See also S. Atkinson (2015), “Psychology and the Hacker: Psychological Incident Handling,” SANS Institute,
sans.​org
, June 20, 2015.

The black market has proven amazingly resilient
: “The Amazons of the Dark Net,”
The Economist
, November 1, 2014.

“The first thing that strikes you”
: J. Bartlett, “Dark Net Drug Markets Kept Alive by Great Customer Service,”
Wired
, August 21, 2014. See also M. P. Aiken and C. McMahon (2014), “The CyberPsychology of Internet Facilitated Organised Crime,” in Europol,
The Internet Organised Crime Threat Assessment Report (iOCTA)
, The Hague, Appendix A3: 81–87,
europol.​europa.​eu
.

the number of products available on Darknets
: P. H. O'Neill, “Dark Net Markets Offer More Drugs Than Ever Before,”
dailydot.​com
, May 13, 2015.

anonymous marketplaces have proven to be resilient
: K. Perry, “Dark Net Drugs Adverts ‘Double in Less Than a Year,' ”
telegraph.​co.​uk
, July 31, 2014. See also S. Nelson, “Buying Drugs Online Remains Easy, 2 Years After FBI Killed Silk Road,”
usnews.​com
, October 2, 2015.

teens in particular have flocked online
: S. Lewis, “Protect Your Teen from Dangerous Dark Net Drugs,”
huffing​tonpost.​com
, February 1, 2014.

Remember the Triple A Engine
: The Triple A Engine of Internet vulnerabilities (affordability, accessibility, and anonymity) that contribute to Internet-related intimacy difficulties was identified by A. Cooper (1997), “The Internet and Sexuality: Into the New Millennium,”
Journal of Sex Education and Therapy
22: 5–6.

There were roughly 187,100 drug-related deaths
: For global estimates of drug deaths and usage, see United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2015),
World Drug Report 2015
(United Nations, New York);
unodc.​org
.

great white sharks and serial killers
: R. A. Martin, D. K. Rossmo, and N. Hammerschlag (2009), “Hunting Patterns and Geographic Profiling of White Shark Predation,”
Journal of Zoology
279(2): 111–18. See also “Great White Sharks Can Behave Like Serial Killers, Study Finds,”
theguardian.​com
, June 22, 2009.

“Criminals reveal who they are”
: D. Canter (2003),
Mapping Murder: The Secrets of Geographical Profiling
(London: Virgin Books).

“Individuals have different routines”
: A. Madero-Hernandez and B. S. Fisher (2012), “Routine Activity Theory,” in F. T. Cullen and P. Wilcox
(eds.),
The Oxford Handbook of Criminological Theory
(Oxford: Oxford University Press).

The incidence of teenagers turning to cybercrime
: For the story of one teen's journey into cybercrime, see L. Kelion, “Finnish Teen Convicted of More Than 50,000 Computer Hacks,”
bbc.​com/​news
, July 8, 2015.
   On teens and cybercrime generally, see “Criminals Recruiting Teens for Life of Cybercrime,”
recruitment​grapevine.​com
, June 10, 2015.

Crimebook
: S. Malik, “Teenagers Jailed for Running £16m Internet Crime Forum,”
The Guardian
, March 2, 2011.

a quarter of organized crime in Britain
: “Cybercrime Could Become More Lucrative Than Drugs, Police Chief Warns,”
telegraph.​co.​uk
, March 1, 2015.

data breach of the IRS
: E. Weise, “IRS Hacked, 100,000 Tax Accounts Breached,”
usatoday.​com
, May 26, 2015.

more than 3 billion people worldwide online
: International Telecommunication Union (2015),
ICT Facts & Figures: The World in 2015
(Geneva);
itu.​int
.

The exponential growth of cybercrime
: On the exponential spread of malware in recent years, see M. Goodman (2015),
Future Crimes: Everything Is Connected, Everyone Is Vulnerable and What We Can Do About It
(New York: Doubleday), 14–15.

Only 5 percent of the malware was found
: M. Garnaeva, V. Chebyshev, D. Makrushin, and A. Ivanov, “IT Threat Evolution in Q1 2015,”
securelist.​com
, May 6, 2015.

we could identify, support, and nurture the most tech-talented
: On a positive note, in 2015 the U.K. government launched an initiative to find and train people with cyber skills to bolster the cyber-security industry. Through school programs and such avenues as national math competitions, Cyber First is intended to identify potential candidates for such things as undergraduate funding and government work placements: A. Stevenson, “UK Government Launches Cyber First Recruitment Drive for Future White Hats,”
V3.​co.​uk
, March 25, 2015. See also the announcement of the new UK National Cyber Security Centre, “New National Cyber Security Centre set to Bring UK Expertise Together,”
gov.​uk
, March 18, 2016.