The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire (53 page)

17
. Shaws,
Gazis
, pp. 246–7.

18
. Anderson, p. xv; P.M. Holt,
Egypt and the Fertile Crescent
, p. 111; A. Hourani, ‘The Changing Face of the Fertile Crescent
in the Eighteenth Century’,
Studia Islamica
, 8 (1953), pp. 89–122.

19
. For the fullest modern account of the Treaty of Kuchuk Kainardji, see Davison,
Essays
, pp. 29–44. English text, Hurewitz, I,
pp. 54–61. For Franz Thugut’s report to Vienna of 17 August 1774 see Davison,
Essays
, p. 32, with comments on pp. 43–4.

20
. The various forms of the treaty are further discussed by Professor Davison in his paper on ‘The Dosografa church in the Treaty of
Kuchuk Kainardji’, (
Essays
, pp. 51–9), from which I have drawn for the final paragraphs of this chapter. See also his article, ‘The Treaty of Kuchuk Kainardji, A Note on
the Italian text’,
International History Review
, vol. 10, no. 4 (1988), pp. 611–21.

Chapter 4: Western Approaches

1
. L. Cassels,
Struggle for the Ottoman Empire
, p. 110; Vandal,
Une ambassade française
, pp. 197 and 291; Kinross,
Ottoman Centuries
, p. 396.

2
. W.R. Polk,
The Opening of South Lebanon
, pp. 10–18; P. Holt,
Egypt and the Fertile Crescent
, pp. 120–3.

3
. On Ali Pasha in general see: D.N. Skiotis’s article, ‘From Bandit to Pasha’ in
IJMES
, vol. 2 (1971), pp.
219–44; William Plomer’s biography,
Ali the Lion
; and G. Remerland’s more scholarly study,
Ali de Tekelen, Pasha de Janina
, largely based on French diplomatic
archives; Shaw, pp. 253–4.

4
. Kinross, op. cit., pp. 410–13; G.S. Thomson,
Catherine the Great and the Expansion of Russia
, pp. 170–93.

5
. Anderson, p. 20; Shaw,
Between
, pp. 64–8.

6
. Ibid., pp. 14–17, with Louis XVI’s letter in full (pp. 16–17).

7
. B. Lewis ‘The Impact of the French Revolution on Turkey’,
Journal of World History
, vol. 1 (1953), pp. 105–25,
summarized Lewis, p. 63.

8
. Lewis, p. 65.

9
. Lewis, p. 59.

10
. Alderson, p. 87 and his genealogical table XLIV; see also the article by Deny in
EI
i under ‘Valide Sultanlar’. For
the more romantic assumptions, see N. Barber,
Lords of the Golden Horn
, pp. 118–19 and, at greater length, B.A. Morton,
The Veiled Empress
, and Lesley Blanch,
The Wilder
Shores of Love
.

11
.
Corr. Nap
. vol. 1, nos 61 and 65.

12
. Miot,
Mémoires I
, p. 235; J. F. Bernard,
Talleyrand
, pp. 201–4; C. Herold,
Bonaparte in Egypt
, pp.
127–9; D. Chandler,
The Campaigns of Napoleon
, pp. 211–12.

13
.
Corr. Nap
. vol. 4, pp. 191–2; Ottoman reactions: Shaw,
Between
, pp. 258–71.

14
. Herold, op. cit., pp. 286–99.

15
. Shaw,
Between
, pp. 278–81; Anderson, p. 33.

Chapter 5: The Strange Fate of Sultan Selim

1
. P. Holt,
Egypt and the Fertile Crescent
, pp. 176–92; Shaw,
Between
, pp. 286–91.

2
. Ibid., pp. 317–27. On the Serb revolt and its background, M. Boro Petrovich,
History of Modern Serbia
, vol. 1, pp. 23–81;
Temperley,
History of Serbia
, chapter 10.

3
.
V. Puryear,
Napoleon and the Dardanelles
, pp. 2–39.

4
. This may have been a higher figure than usual; cf. C. Issawi,
Economic History of Turkey
, pp. 80 and 83–4 and Anderson, p.
60.

5
. Napoleon to Selim III, 30 January 1805,
Corr. Nap
. vol. 10 no. 8298.

6
. Napoleon to Talleyrand, 9 June 1806,
Corr. Nap
. vol. 12 no. 10339.

7
. Napoleon to Caulaincourt, 31 May 1808, L. Lecaistre,
Lettres inédites de Napoleon I
, vol. 1, p. 198; and see A. Palmer,
Alexander I
, pp. 143 and 155.

8
. M.P. Coquelle, ‘Sébastiani, ambassadeur à Constantinople’,
Revue Historique Diplomatique
, vol. 18 (1904),
pp. 574–611.

9
. P. Mackesy,
The War in the Mediterranean, 1803–10
, p. 161.

10
. Ibid., pp. 166–7.

11
. Ibid., pp. 170–4, supplemented by Arbuthnot’s reports in FO 78/55.

12
. Mackesy, pp. 176–7; C. Frazee,
Orthodox Church and Independent Greece
, p. 8.

13
. Mackesy, op. cit., pp. 186–94.

14
. Shaw,
Between
, pp. 373–5.

15
. Ibid., pp. 378–95.

16
. Puryear, op. cit., pp. 207–27; Mackesy, op. cit., pp. 206–11.

17
. Shaw,
Between
, pp. 403–4.

18
. Temp., p. 6 and p. 401.

19
. A. Juchereau de St Denys,
Les Révolutions de Constantinople en 1807–08
, vol. 2, pp. 217–392; Shaws, pp. 2 and
3; Lewis, pp. 74–5.

20
. Juchereau, op. cit., vol. 2, pp. 199–208.

Chapter 6: Mahmud II, The Enigma

1
. C. Macfarlane,
Constantinople in 1828
, p. 111; L.A. Marchand, (ed.) Byron
Letters
, vol. 1, pp. 241–56; J.C. Hobhouse,
Journey through Albania . . . to Constantinople
, vol. 1, p. 365.

2
. Temperley,
Hist. of Serbia
, p. 190: the book was published in 1917, with this section probably written during the Balkan Wars; Shaws,
p. 6; Davison,
Essays
, p. 23.

3
. L-P, vol. 1, pp. 49–53 and p. 513; Slade,
Travels in Turkey
, etc., chapters 8 and 9.

4
. L-P, vol. 1, p. 49.

5
. S. Canning to R. Wellesley, 9 November 1809, L-P vol. 1, p. 71.

6
. Ibid., p. 63; C. W. Crawley,
The Question of Greek Independence
, pp. 55–6.

7
. Kinross,
Ottoman Centuries
, pp. 443–4 and works cited for chapter 4, note 3, above.

8
. H. Holland,
Travels in Ionian Islands, Albania, etc
., vol. 1, p. 204.

9
.
For following paragraphs: D. Dakin,
Unification of Greece
, pp. 39–43; C.W. Crawley, op. cit., pp.
18–20; R. Clogg (ed.),
The Movement for Greek Independence
, pp.175–200.

10
. Exhortation of 1798 translated, ibid., pp. 56–64.

11
. Palmer,
Alexander I
, pp. 377–80; C.M. Woodhouse,
Capodistria
, pp. 267–70.

12
. Chabert to Strangford, 31 March 1821, Add. MSS 36299, no. 59.

13
. Chabert to Strangford, 16 April 1821, Add. MSS 36299, no. 88; Pisani Memorandum of same date, Add. MSS 36301, no. 4.

14
. Anathema of March 1821, Clogg, op. cit., pp. 203–6; cf. C.A. Frazee,
Orthodox Church and Independent Greece
, pp.
28–9.

15
. Patriarch’s death: eyewitness account, R. Walsh,
A Residence at Constantinople
, pp. 314–17; Memorandum by Pisani, 25
April 1821, Add. MSS 36301, no. 5; formal dispatch, Strangford to Castlereagh (?25) April 1821, FO 78/98/27; later account, Strangford to Castlereagh, 12 June 1821, FO 78/99/47; Frazee, op. cit.,
pp. 32–3; Crawley, op. cit., pp. 17–18.

16
. Strangford to Castlereagh, 23 July 1821, FO 78/99/71.

17
. Frazee, op. cit., pp. 36–9.

18
. Walsh, op. cit. I, pp. 316–17; Pisani Memorandum, 1 June 1821, Add. MSS 36301, no. 54.

19
. Temperley,
Foreign Policy of Canning
, pp. 336–8; Ibrahim in Greece, Crawley, op. cit., pp. 38–59.

20
. G. Canning to S. Canning, 9 January 1826, L-P, vol. 1, p. 396; A. Palmer,
The Chancelleries of Europe
, p. 46.

21
. Hobhouse, op. cit. I, p. 213.

22
. For the Turkish Court Chronicler see Temp., p. 16, p. 402.

23
. S. Canning to G. Canning, 19 April 1826, L-P, vol. 1, p. 401.

24
. L-P vol. 1, p. 417; Stratford’s account was written some 40 years later.

25
. Ibid., pp. 418–20; Walsh, op. cit. vol. 2, pp. 264–6 and his Appendix VII, pp. 502–25; see also Temp., pp. 18–22
and the French account translated in Laurence Kelly’s
Istanbul
, pp. 266–71.

26
. S. Canning to G. Canning, 12 August 1821, L-P, vol. 1, p. 424.

Chapter 7: Egyptian Style

1
. Mahmud’s reforms: Lewis, pp. 75–103; Shaws, pp. 21–9, 35–40, 46–8.

2
. Lewis, pp. 89–92.

3
. C. Issawi,
Economic History of Turkey
, p. 161.

4
. Anderson, pp. 67–74; Crawley,
Question of Greek Independence
, pp. 86–112; Palmer,
Chancelleries of Europe
, pp.
48–9.

5
. For the diplomatic background as well as the naval events see C.M. Woodhouse’s
The Battle of Navarino
.

6
.
Crawley, op. cit., pp. 164–75; Shaws, pp. 31–2; Hurst,
Key Treaties
, vol. 1, pp.
188–203.

7
. N. Shilder,
Imperator Nikolaus I
, vol. 2, pp. 250–1.

8
. Palmerston to Granville, 6 November 1832, C. Webster,
Foreign Policy of Palmerston
, vol. 1, p. 282. Webster’s chapter 4 is a
valuable source for Great Power policies in this crisis; P. Holt,
Egypt and the Fertile Crescent
, pp. 232–5; P. Vatikiotis,
History of Modern Egypt
, p. 65; Temp., pp.
89–136.

9
. Anderson, pp. 81–6; P.E. Moseley,
Russian Diplomacy and the Opening of the Eastern Question
, p. 21.

10
. Palmer,
Chancelleries
, pp. 64–5; J. Norris,
The First Afghan War
, pp. 214–6.

11
. Moltke’s letter of 12 July 1839, H. von Moltke,
Briefe aus dem Turkei
, pp. 377–400 (for the battle and its
preliminaries).

Chapter 8: Sick Man?

1
. Temp., p. 242.

2
. Shaws, pp. 58–9; Temp. pp. 98–9, 157, 163, 243–7; L-P, vol. 2, pp. 101–14.

3
. Temp., pp. 158–61. The official French language text of the Gülhane Decree is in Young,
Coup de droit Ottoman
, vol. 1, pp.
257–61. Extensive quotations, Shaws, pp. 58–9.

4
. Diplomats’ comments, Temp., p. 162. See also Temperley’s article, ‘British Policy towards Parliamentary Reform and
Constitutionalism in Turkey’,
Cambridge Historical Journal
, 1933, especially pp. 150–60.

5
. See discussion in Palmer,
Chancelleries of Europe
, pp. 65–7.

6
. Hurst,
Key Treaties
, vol. 1, pp. 252–8; C. Webster,
Foreign Policy of Palmerston
, vol. 2, p. 644–737; Anderson,
pp. 100–4.

7
. Hurst,
Key Treaties
, vol. 1, pp. 259–60.

8
. For an account of Nicholas’s visit to London, based on the Aberdeen Papers and Russian sources, see A. Palmer,
The Banner of
Battle
, pp. 1–7.

9
. For the
Tanzimat
reforms in general: Lewis, pp. 75–125; Shaws, pp. 61–118; Davison,
Essays
, pp. 114–28.

10
. Temp., pp. 242–3. This opinion, probably written in 1934, occurs in a strange paragraph comparing the methods used by Stratford de
Redcliffe and T.E. Lawrence in ‘reforming Orientals’.

11
. See the article ‘The First Ottoman Experiment with Paper Money’ in Davison,
Essays
, pp. 60–72.

12
. Detailed figures cited by Shaws, p. 107, from sources in Istanbul.

13
. Stratford de Redcliffe to Palmerston, 5 April 1851, Temp., p. 242.

14
. Temp., pp. 188–97 and p. 446, may be supplemented by Colonel Rose’s journal in the Strathnairn Papers, Add. MSS 42834.

15
. O
n Maronites in the Lebanon see Yapp,
Making of the Modern Near East
, p. 136; P.M. Holt,
Egypt and the
Fertile Crescent 1576–1922
, pp. 236–41.

16
. The chief biographical source for Omer is a memoir by his physician, published in Sarajevo when Bosnia was under Austro-Hungarian
administration: J. Koetscheck,
Aus dem Leben Serdar Ekrem Omer pasha.

17
. Lord Cowley (in Vienna) to Palmerston, 3 January 1849, FO 30/122/10 mentions two occasions, basing his report on talks with Archduke
John. The other occasion is cited below (note 18).

18
. Vienna visit of December 1845: T. Schiemann,
Geschichte Russlands unter Kaiser Nikolaus I
, vol. 4, p. 377; A. Palmer,
Metternich
, pp. 290–1.

19
. Temp., pp. 259–65. A British government bluebook, ‘Correspondence respecting Refugees within the Turkish dominions’,
was published in 1851 (no. 1324, in volume 50 of Accounts and Papers).

20
. Temp., pp. 265–66, 502–6.

21
. Temp., pp. 292–5.

22
. H. Rose to Clarendon, 28 December 1852, FO 78/894/170.

23
. A.A. Zaionchkovskii,
Vostochnaia voina v sviazi s sovremennoi i politeschkoi obstanovki
, vol. 1, pp. 356–7.

24
. The fullest treatment of these talks is in G.H. Bolsover, ‘Nicholas I and the Partition of Turkey’,
SEER
, vol. 27
(1948–9) pp. 139–43. But this article must be supplemented by Seymour’s Journal, Add. MSS 60306. For this reference see the Journal for 9 January 1853.

25
. Palmer,
Banner of Battle
, pp. 14–15.

26
. Russell to Seymour, 9 February 1853, FO 65/649/38; Temp., pp. 274–5.

27
. Ibid., Palmer, op. cit., p. 16.