The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire (55 page)

20
. For declaration of war, ibid., pp. 140–2; and Papadopoulos also prints as his Appendix 3 a military assessment of the war made in
Pera by Captain H.A. Lawrence (originally in FO 78/4993). Langer, chapter 11, has a good survey of the war, with maps. For optimism in Athens, see G.W.E. Russell,
Malcolm MacColl
, pp.
195–7. See also Dakin, op. cit., pp. 152–4.

21
. Prince Nicholas of Greece,
My Fifty Years
, p. 157.

22
. Salisbury to O’Conor, 15 May 1897, FO 65/1535/tel. 244; answered, O’Conor to Salisbury, 17 May, FO 65/1536/tel. 59 and FO
65/1532/dispatch 112.

23
. Papadopoulos, op. cit., p. 222.

24
. Shaws, pp. 207–11; Crampton, op. cit., pp. 229–40; D. Dakin,
Unification of Greece
, pp. 159–79, succinctly
covers material more exhaustively assessed in his
The Greek Struggle in Macedonia
, 1897–1913; Stoyan Pribicevich,
Macedonia,
Its People and History
, pp. 119–36,
takes a (moderate) Yugoslav approach to what is still a highly-charged topic.

25
. Currie to Salisbury, 2 June 1897, FO 78/4802/372; printed in full as Appendix 2 in Papadopoulos, pp. 245–7.

26
.
Punch
, 18 January 1896; included in a special supplement, ‘The Unspeakable Turk’, which
reprinted 24 anti-Ottoman cartoons published between September 1876 and November 1914, and was distributed with the issue of
Punch
on 16 December 1914.

Chapter 13: Ancient Peoples and Young Turks

1
. GP, vol. 12, chapter 83 contains relevant German diplomatic documents. Contemporary reports in G. Gaulis,
La Ruine d’une
Empire
, pp. 156–242. See A. Palmer,
The Kaiser
, pp. 91–2. Very strangely, the detailed and scholarly first volume of Lamar Cecil’s biography
(Wilhelm II, Prince and
Emperor 1859–1900)
ignores the Kaiser’s visits to Constantinople, Palestine and Syria entirely.

2
. F. Fischer,
Germany’s Aims in the First World War
, pp. 20–2 and 39–40; C. Issawi,
Economic History of Modern
Turkey
, pp. 188–91.

3
. Haslip,
The Sultan
, p. 236.

4
. Longrigg,
Oil in the Middle East
, p. 27.

5
. These comments— some 400 words— were made by William II in 1931 on p. 120 of a copy of
Die Verschworung der Diplomaten
,
the German edition of Nicolson’s
Lord Carnock
, which is in my possession. The page annotated corresponds to p. 89 of the English edition.

6
. Prince von Bülow,
Memoirs, 1897–1903
, p. 249.

7
. William II to Nicholas II, 9 November 1898, N. Grant,
The Kaiser’s Letters to the Tsar
, pp. 65–70.

8
. Bülow, op. cit., p. 254.

9
. Trumpener, in Kent, pp. 117–20. On the Hejaz Railway, see Kinross,
Ottoman Centuries
, p. 567, and the specialist study, W.
Ochsenwald,
The Hijaz Railroad
.

10
. M. Lowenthal (ed.),
Diaries of Theodor Herzl
, pp. 266–7 and 282. For Herzl’s meetings with the Kaiser see I. Friedman,
Germany, Turkey and Zionism
, pp. 75–81, with a detailed study of earlier contacts between Herzl and the German imperial circle (pp. 56–62 and 65–74). For Herzl’s
meetings with the Sultan, ibid., pp. 97–8.

11
. Ibid., pp. 154–70.

12
. Derek Wilson,
Rothschild
, pp. 289–98.

13
. See Currie’s dispatch noted above, chapter 12, note 25, which may be supplemented by an interesting report on military dissidents
by Colonel Chermside, 30 March 1896, FO 78/4705. See also O’Conor to Salisbury, 21 December 1898, FO 78/4920/659.

14
. Lewis, pp. 208–10; Kinross,
Ottoman Centuries
, pp. 504–7.

15
. Ahmad, pp. 166–81; E.F. Ramsaur,
The Young Turks
, pp. 55–7; and for Sabahed-din, ibid., pp. 65–7 and
124–9.

16
. J
. Swire,
Balkan Conspiracy
, pp. 84 and 94–7.

17
. A.P. Vacalopoulos,
History of Thesssaloniki
, p. 127.

18
. David Porter,
Mother Teresa, The Early Years
; S. Skendi,
The Albanian National Awakening
, pp. 380–404.

19
. B. Jelavich,
History of the Balkans, vol. 2, XXth Century
, pp. 89–90; Albertini,
Origins of the War of 1914
, vol. 1,
pp. 132–8.

20
. Haslip,
The Sultan
, p. 234; Kent, pp. 122–3.

21
. Ramsaur, op. cit., pp. 94–5; Kinross,
Atatürk
, pp. 24, 25, 28.

22
. Incident at Drama; Ahmad, op. cit., p. 12, citing FO 371/544/423. The works of Ramsaur and Ahmad complement Lewis, pp. 206–9.

23
. Shaws, p. 267.

Chapter 14: Seeking Union and Progress

1
. Shaws, p. 273; Haslip,
The Sultan
, pp. 263–4.

2
. Ahmad, pp. 20–1, 172, 175.

3
. Lowther to Grey, 4 August 1908,
BDD
, vol. 5, no. 205; see also Lowther’s private letter of 25 August, no. 209.

4
. Shaws, p. 276; Lewis, p. 226.

5
. Kent, pp. 37–9; Palmer,
Chancelleries
, pp. 214–15; Albertini,
Origins of the War of 1914
, vol. 1, pp.
206–10.

6
. Grey to Lowther, 13 November 1908, cited from the Grey Papers in PRO by Feroz Ahmad, ‘Great Britain’s Relations with the Young
Turks’,
Middle East Studies
, vol. 2, no. 4 (1966), p. 306 and p. 309.

7
. Grey to Lowther, 11 August 1908,
BDD
, vol. 5, no. 207.

8
. B.C. Busch,
Britain and the Persian Gulf 1894–1914
, pp. 187–234 and 304–47; Longrigg,
Oil in the Middle
East
, pp. 18–19.

9
. M.K. Chapman,
Great Britain and the Baghdad Railway 1888–1914
, chapter 4. The Anglo-Russian exchanges may be traced in
BDD
, vol. 5, nos 535–41.

10
. Ahmad, pp. 39–42; Shaws, pp. 279–81; Lewis, pp. 211–12; Francis McCullagh, ‘The Constantinople Mutiny of April
13th’,
Fortnightly Review
, vol. 86 pp. 58–69, and his book
The Fall of Abdul Hamid
; Sir Andrew Ryan,
The Last of the Dragomans
, pp.54–6.

11
. Ahmad, pp. 43–8.

12
. Shaws, p. 282; Anderton, p. 71. For
fetva
of deposition: Abbot,
Turkey in Transition
, p. 258.

13
. Kinross,
Ottoman Centuries
, p. 578; Haslip,
Sultan
, pp. 285–7.

14
. M. Gilbert,
Winston S. Churchill
, vol. 3, p. 189, and Companion to vol. 3, pt. 1, p. 39. See also Ahmad, pp. 49–51.

15
. Ahmad, pp. 58–61.

16
. Shaws, pp. 284–6.

17
.
Ahmad, pp. 45–8, 106–7, 179. Feroz Ahmad has also contributed a valuable article on Shevket to
EI
ii.

18
. S. Skendi,
The Albanian National Awakening, 1878–1912
, pp. 398–404; Shaws, p. 288.

19
. Timothy W. Childs,
Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911–1912
, p. 25. For events in the Yemen, P. Mansfield,
The Ottoman Empire and its Successors
, p. 30; Yapp,
Making of Modern Near East
, pp. 174–5.

20
. This theme is developed in Childs, op. cit; chapters 2 and 3. See also Albertini, op. cit., vol. 1, chapter 6.

21
. Childs, op. cit., pp. 70–91; G.F. Abbot,
The Holy War in Tripoli
, is a contemporary English account, sympathetic to the
Ottomans. See also E.N. Bennett,
With the Turks in Tripoli
.

22
. Ahmad, pp. 94 and 107.

23
. Childs, op. cit., p. 24: Mallet to Grey, 5 December 1913,
BDD
, X (i) no. 403 is informative on British naval mission.

24
. B. Jelavich,
History of the Balkans
, Vol. 2,
XXth Century
, pp. 95–100; Dakin,
Unification of Greece
, pp.
195–200; R. Crampton,
History of Bulgaria
, pp. 401–28; W. Miller,
The Ottoman Empire and its Successors
, pp. 498–522.

25
. Ahmad, pp. 113–16, 172–3.

26
. The diplomat was Gerald Fitzmaurice, whose report on the affair is in FO 195/2451/340, dated 5 February 1913; cf. Ryan, op, cit., p. 80.
For the Sublime Porte Raid see: Ahmad, pp. 116–21; Shaws, pp. 295 and 299; Djemal,
Memoirs of a Turkish Statesman
, pp. 1–3; Sir E. Pears,
Forty Years in Constantinople
,
pp. 331–2.

27
. Ahmad, p. 128.

28
. E.C. Helmreich,
The Diplomacy of the Balkan Wars
, pp. 324–32 may be supplemented by Crampton’s account; see also
Albertini, op. cit., vol. 1, pp. 450–53.

29
. See, in general, Ahmad, chapter 7.

30
. Wangenheim to Foreign Ministry, 17 May 1913,
GP
vol. 38, no. 15303.

31
. F. Fischer,
War of Illusions
, pp. 333–4.

Chapter 15: Germany’s Ally

1
. Longrigg,
Oil in the Middle East
, p. 30: Gilbert,
Winston S. Churchill
, vol. 3, pp.188–90.

2
. Fischer,
War of Illusions
, pp. 334–5.

3
. Wangenheim to German Foreign Ministry, 18 July 1914, cited by H.S.W. Corrigan in his article, ‘German-Turkish Relations and the
Outbreak of War in 1914’,
Past and Present
, no. 36, p. 151. See also Howard,
Partition
of Turkey
, pp. 96–102 and Trumpener, pp. 15–20. For
Baghdad Railway: Chapman’s final chapter and Hurst,
Key Treaties
, vol. 2, pp. 867–73.

4
. Fischer, op. cit., p. 336.

5
. Corrigan, loc. cit., p. 168; Bompard to Doumergue, 27 May 1914,
DDF
, sér. 3, vol. 10, no. 291.

6
. Note de Departement, 13 July 1914,
DDF,
sér. 3, vol. 10, no. 504. Djemal,
Memoirs
, p. 106 and p. 113, is less
reliable.

7
. Shaws, p. 311. For Turkish reactions to the coming of the war: H. Morgenthau,
Secrets of the Bosphorus
; Lewis Einstein,
Inside
Constantinople
(a journal for 1915 and 1916); and for the impact of these events on a child, Irfan Orga’s fascinating
Portrait of a Turkish Family
.

8
. Gilbert, op. cit., vol. 3, pp. 191–3 and Companion vol. 3, pp. 9, 10, 19; Fromkin,
Peace to End All Peace
, pp. 54–61.

9
. A.J.P. Taylor,
Struggle for Mastery in Europe
, p. 533. For the alliance, see also Howard, op. cit., pp. 83–91.

10
. Gilbert, op. cit., vol. 3, p. 196.

11
. Churchill to Limpus, 9 September 1914, Gilbert, Companion vol. 3, pt. 1, p. 105.

12
. Limpus to Churchill, 26 August 1914, ibid., pp. 56–60; Souchon description is by Lewis Einstein, op. cit., p. 43.

13
. Shaws, p. 312; Ahmad, p. 157.

14
. Gilbert, op. cit., vol. 3, pp. 212–13 clarifies this matter.

15
. Trumpener, pp. 23–57; Howard, op. cit., pp. 106–15; Yapp,
Making of Modern Near East
, p. 272.

16
. Holt,
Egypt and Fertile Crescent
, p. 263.

17
. Russian ambassador to Russian Foreign Minister, 13 November 1914, cited by Taylor (op. cit., p. 541) from Russian diplomatic documents.
See also Michael Ekstein on ‘Russia, Constantinople, and the Straits 1914–15’ in Hinsley, pp. 423–35.

18
. Fromkin, op. cit., pp. 126–37; Gilbert, op. cit., vol. 3, pp. 202–3; 217–19; 229–35.

19
. Ibid., p. 222, quoting Churchill’s testimony to the Dardanelles Commissioners in September 1916.

20
. The grand strategy behind the Gallipoli campaign may be traced in vol. 3 of Martin Gilbert’s
Churchill
. Robert Rhodes
James’s
Gallipoli
is fine narrative, and analysis, of the tragedy.

21
. Aspinall-Oglander,
Military Operations; Gallipoli
, pp. 485–6.

22
. William II marginal note of 30 July 1914, cited from German diplomatic documents by Fischer,
Germany’s Aims . . .
, p.
121.

23
. Ibid., p. 127; Fromkin, op. cit., p. 209.

24
. Holt, op. cit., pp. 273, 276, 290.

25
.
Fischer, op. cit., pp. 127–8. For problems behind the lines in the southern provinces, see Emin,
Turkey
in the World War
, p. 88.

26
. Gilbert, op. cit., vol. 3, pp. 279, 281, 291; Vatikiotis,
History of Modern Egypt
, pp. 253–4; Shaws, p. 320; Trumpener, pp.
111–12.

27
. Holt, op. cit., pp. 260–1; Fromkin, op. cit., pp. 176–8.

28
. Ibid., p. 106–10; Kedourie,
Anglo-Arab Labyrinth
, pp. 47–52.

29
. Expedition to Fao had been planned as early as 1912, see Busch,
Britain and Persian Gulf
, p. 329. See A.T. Wilson,
Mesopotamia;
Loyalties 1914–17
; the account of the campaign in A.J. Barker’s
The Neglected War
; M. Fitzherbert,
The Man Who Was Greenmantle
, pp. 169–81; J. Wilson,
Lawrence of Arabia
, pp. 253–78 (with Kitchener’s bribery offer discussed on p. 270); and Russell Braddon’s moving narrative of Kut,
The Siege.

30
. Trumpener,
passim
; and see also Emin, op. cit., and Morgenthau’s
Secrets.

31
. Yapp, op. cit., pp. 267–72; A. Hayder,
A Prince of Arabia
, pp. 106–9; Reinhold Lorenz,
Kaiser Karl
, pp.
461–5.

32
. Richard Hovannissian,
Armenia on the Road to Independence
, pp. 45–56; Shaws, pp. 315–16.