The Lost Massey Lectures (47 page)

4
. This is a matter of much practical importance, especially as regards the armed forces. Generally in the United States there has been recognition of the bearing of a regressive or feudal land system on economic development. That
caudillo
government, either by itself or in association with other non-functional groups, can be equally inimical has not been so readily seen. As a consequence, conservative, or more often simplistically traditionalist, officials regularly turn up defending army dictatorships in Latin America. And, in the past, military aid funds have regularly gone to support armies, which were a source of political power, at the same time that economic assistance was being given to development or even (hopefully) to land reform. It would be difficult to find a policy with a greater element of self-contradiction and this is not lessened by the tendency of those who espouse support to the Latin American military to assume that pragmatism, professionalism and even an element of righteousness are on their side.

5
. Francis N. Schott. “Inflation and Stabilization Efforts in Chile, 1953-1958.”
Inter-American Affairs
, Winter, 1959. Reprinted in
Leading Issues in Development Economics
, by Gerald M. Meier. New York. Oxford University Press, 1964. P. 221.

6
. Venezuela also has rich income from oil but may gradually be breaking the hold of a regressive social structure which for a long time led to the dissipation and waste of this revenue.

7
. Although not in all categories of teachers or with a sufficient willingness to serve in rural villages.

8
. The army is not without political power in Pakistan. However, it is not a recognized avenue to political power and economic advantage as in Latin America. And the armed coup which brought President Ayub Khan to power in 1959 (like his subsequent administration) bore little or no resemblance to the Latin American phenomenon.

1
. They constitute more than one-third of all degree-holding secondary teachers in Ghana and teach over 20,000 secondary students in that country. In Malawi, they provide over one-third of all secondary teachers and have helped to double the secondary school enrollment. In Sierra Leone, they provide over one-half of all qualified teachers. In Liberia, the Peace Corps furnished 90 per cent of all degree-holding teachers. In Nigeria, 25 per cent of all graduate teachers in secondary schools are Peace Corps Volunteers who teach 40,000 students, representing 35 per cent of the total enrollment of secondary students. In Ethiopia and West Cameroon, 40 per cent of all qualified secondary teachers are Volunteers. Sharpe, op. cit. in my third lecture, p. 30.

2
. In Laos, in the 1950's, it was United States policy, when in doubt as to what should be done, to provide more money. The Eisenhower administration, with a warm respect for pecuniary values, naturally assumed that money must do good. In fact, in widening the economic difference between the city recipients and the countryside, and proving the feasibility of winning wealth without effort, it probably did a certain measure of damage.

3
. The idea of a Teachers Corps in the United States, a proposal with which I have been identified, has similar provenance. The poor school districts need not money, which they often spend incompetently, but highly qualified and motivated talent which
they cannot buy. It is hoped that the Teachers Corps will provide such talent.

4
. Cf. Berg. Op. cit. in my third lecture, p. 30.

5
. This conclusion is argued by Celso Furtado in an important forthcoming paper, “Development and Stagnation in Latin America: A Structuralist Approach,” Yale University, Economic Growth Center, which he has been good enough to let me read.

6
. Professor A. O. Hirschman has drawn attention to other such policy rhythms, derived from a tendency to look with favor on any alternative to what is presently being done, in the field of exchange control, fiscal policy and development administration.
Economic Development and Cultural Change
. University of Chicago Press. 1957. I have been impressed by the same tendency and attribute much of it to optimistic newcomers, both indigenous and foreign, in the field of economic development. Along with extremely important enthusiasm they bring a strong tendency, on seeing something wrong, to assume that any change must be for the better. They cannot easily be persuaded either that present policy is the result of similar previous convictions or that the alternative policy had an earlier and equally unsatisfactory incarnation.

7
. A case that has been argued in a different context by my colleague, Alexander Gerschenkron. “Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective” in
The Progress of Underdeveloped Areas
. Edited by B. F. Hoselitz. Chicago. University of Chicago Press, 1952.

8
. It will be the view of any close student of United States policy in Latin America, I believe, that more is to be feared from political innocence than political reaction. It has been extensively influenced in the past by a generation of professional diplomats who had no experience with the liberal leavening of domestic politics and the discovery that Negroes, the unemployed, farmers, trade
union members were not automatically enamored of the status quo and what best suited respectable and well-to-do white Anglo-Saxon Protestants of good family and education. Nor were they especially informed on the academic currents of liberal economic and political thought. At the same time, they drew on undoubted and lengthy experience in Latin America. This experience was all but exclusively with the elite; it led to an almost automatic identification with this point of view and a deep, self-confident and at times self-righteous conviction that the masses in Latin America did not count. These attitudes are not identified with any serious economic interest of the United States although they are, of course, applauded by American conservatives. It is for this reason that one properly associates them with innocence rather than reaction. Although sophistication is unquestionably increasing, these attitudes have not disappeared, at least from among the older generation of officers. They had an unhappy initial influence on recent policy toward the Dominican Republic; only gradually were more liberal and sophisticated attitudes brought to bear.

9
. Technical assistance in industrial, educational and agricultural fields is, at best, of marginal importance in the Model. However, it is my feeling that in countries such as India, it has, in fact, been overemphasized. It can be useful in specific areas where, despite the ample cultural base, specific technical or other intellectual resources are limited.

1
. David Cameron,
Nationalism, Self Determination, and the Quebec Question
, Toronto: Macmillan of Canada, 1974.

2
. Garth Stevenson,
Unfulfilled Union
. Toronto: Macmillan, 1979.

3
. Statistics Canada.

4
. Statistics Canada, figures on mother-tongue of Montreal population.

5
. Personal communication with Public Information Officer at the Toronto Stock Exchange.

6
. Statistics Canada.

7
. Statistics Canada.

8
. This and all subsequent history of Norway and Sweden come from the following books:

T. K. Derry.
A History of Modern Norway 1814-1972
. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973.

John Midgaard.
A Brief History of Norway
. Oslo: Johan Grundt Tanum Forlag, 1969.

Karen Larsen.
A History of Norway
, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1948.

9
. Larry Grossman, Ontario's current Minister of Industry and Tourism.

10
. Government of Canada, Department of Industry, Trade and Commerce; Western Europe Division.

11
. Ibid.

12
. Statistics Canada, Imports and Exports between Norway and Canada for years 1976-1978.

13
. Gunnar Jerman (ed.).
Norway 79
. Oslo: Export Council of Norway, 1979.

14
. Statistics Canada, Imports and Exports between Norway and Canada for years 1976-1978.

15
. Ola Veigaard (ed.).
Facts About Norway
, 15th edition. Oslo: Aftenposten, 1975.

16
.
Norway 79
, op. cit.

17
. Gunnar Jerman (ed.).
New Norway
. Oslo: Export Council of Norway, 1973.

18
. J. J. Brown.
Ideas In Exile
. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1967.

19
. George Gibb and Evelyn Knowlton.
History of Standard Oil
, vol. 2. New York: Harper, 1956.

20
. Personal communication with the Chairman of the Ontario Hostelry Directorship Institute.

21
. Iona and Peter Opie (eds.).
Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes
. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1952.

22
. F. H. Pritchard (ed.).
The World's Best Essays
. New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1932.

23
. Personal communication.

24
. Statistics Canada, Federal Government Employment.

25
. René Lévesque.
My Quebec
. Toronto: Methuen, 1979.

26
. Government of Quebec. “Quebec-Canada: A New Deal—The Quebec Government proposal for a new partnership between equals: sovereignty-association.” Tabled in the Quebec National Assembly, 1 November 1979.

27
. Statistics Canada, Manufacturing and Primary Industries Division.

28
. Personal communication.

29
. Bank of Canada, Toronto.

30
. Personal communication.

31
. This and all others, except where noted, are from Lévesque,
My Quebec
, op. cit.

32
. David Cameron, op. cit.

33
. Stephen Jay Gould. “Dreamer,” a review of Freeman Dyson's
Disturbing The Universe. New York Review of Books
. 11 October 1979.

34
. A. O. Lovejoy.
The Great Chain of Being
. New York: Harper Torchbook, 1963.

35
. Quebec, Le Ministre d'Etat au development culturel. “Towards a Scientific Research Policy for Quebec,” as summarized in
Agenda
, a quarterly bulletin of the Science Council of Canada, vol. 2 number 3, 1979.

36
. Morrison Renfrew, project manager for Ontario's Urban Transportation Development Corporation, quoted in the Toronto
Globe and Mail
, 25 July 1979.

37
. Letter to the Editor from Shinji Nakamura, Head HSST System Engineering Group, Tokyo, in the Toronto
Globe and Mail
, 1 September 1979.

38
. Virginia Woolf.
Between The Acts
. London: Hogarth Press, 1941.

I am deeply indebted to Diane Rotstein for research and editorial assistance, to Max Allen for directing and editing the broadcast lectures, to Geraldine Sherman for arranging for them, and to all three for their advice, taste and the enjoyment of working with them.

I thank Decker Butzner, Stephen Clarkson, Kari Dehli, Robert,
James and Burgin Jacobs, Douglas Manzer, Doris Mehegan, Alan Powell and the staffs of the Norwegian Trade Commission, the Swedish Trade Commission and the Toronto Public Library for their various contributions of assistance.

My deepest gratitude is for a fact: that even when the subject is as contentious as the one I have chosen, Canada's government-owned broadcasting corporation can serve free speech without hint or taint of censorship.

1
. Such concerns also appear in Professor Kierans' resignation from the Federal cabinet; see
Appendix C
.

1
. The complete text is printed in
Appendix A
.

2
. The complete text is printed in
Appendix B
.

The Massey Lectures were created in honour of the Right Honourable Vincent Massey, former governor general of Canada, and were inaugurated by the
CBC
in 1961 to enable distinguished authorities to communicate the results of original study or research on a variety of subjects of general interest. The Massey Lectures are today co-sponsored by
CBC
Radio, House of Anansi Press, and Massey College in the University of Toronto.

The Underdeveloped Country
is the text of the fifth annual series of Massey Lectures, broadcast on
CBC
Radio during the fall of 1965. The series was arranged by Robert McCormack and produced by Lynn Higgins of the
CBC
Department of Public Affairs.

John Kenneth Galbraith (1908–2006) was a Canadian-born American economist, public servant, and writer. Born in Iona Station, Ontario, he earned a B.Sc. degree (1931) from the
Ontario Agricultural College at Guelph and an M.Sc. degree (1933) and a Ph.D. degree (1934) from the University of California, Berkeley, and later studied in England at Cambridge University. He became a U.S. citizen in 1937 and would serve in the Roosevelt, Truman, Kennedy, and Johnson administrations. During and after World War II, he was deputy administrator of the Office of Price Administration, director of the U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey, and director of Economic Policy with the U.S. Department of State. He was also Paul M. Warburg Professor of Economics at Harvard University, where he taught for many years, a U.S. ambassador to India (1961–63), and the author of many books on economics, including
American Capitalism
,
The Great Crash, 1929
,
The Affluent Society
,
The New Industrial State
, and
Economics and the Public Purpose
, as well as hundreds of essays, a memoir, and a number of novels. He was awarded numerous honorary degrees, twice received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, in 1946 and in 2000, and was made an officer of the Order of Canada in 1997.