The Psychology Book (101 page)

with psychotic patients. In controlled

is the mental search process which

studies, such as those by Norwegian

we use to find solutions, by

Through this work, he identified

psychologist Dan Olweus and his

bringing together different ideas

a third dimension of temperament,

colleagues in 1980, the aggressive

from memory to form new answers

which he labelled “psychoticism,”

element of psychoticism has been

to problems. This mental scanning

a term that has largely replaced the

related biologically to increased

is guided by ideas of relevance:

word “insanity” in general use. In

testosterone levels.

what past ideas and experiences

personality theory, this was quite

do I have that are relevant to this

a departure: most personality

Studying genius

problem? Each of us performs this

theorists were attempting to define

A clear psychological definition of

differently, and it is an ability that

and measure the normal (sane)

creativity has proved slippery, but

is independent of our IQ. The

personality. However, Eysenck

there is broad agreement that it

ability runs along a scale, ranging

from an expansive, over-inclusive

idea of what is relevant (seeing

too many things as potential

possibilities), to an overly narrow

one (seeing few possibilities); at the

center sits a more conventional

sense of what might apply to any

problem at hand.

Over-inclusive thinking can be

measured by word-association

tests, which analyze two features:

the number of responses to any

given word, and the originality of

responses. For example, when

presented with the word “foot,”

those with a narrow range of

responses are most likely to

Professor Frankenstein
creates

a monster in Mary Shelley’s novel, and

exhibits classic psychotic symptoms:

recklessness, disregard for conventions,

and tough-mindedness.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 321

psychoticism (in the absence of

psychosis). The drive to translate the

trait of creativity into achievement,

for example by creating works of

art, comes from aspects of

the psychotic temperament,

in particular the over-inclusive

thinking style. Eysenck was not

suggesting a causal link between

genius and insanity; while the

two things have something

in common—over-inclusive

thinking—this combines with

other features of genius or insanity

Hans J. Eysenck

to lead to very different results.

Research into creativity faces

Hans Jurgen Eysenck was

born in Berlin, Germany, to

Creative geniuses
, such as the artist

a number of difficult challenges:

artistic parents; his mother

Vincent van Gogh, exhibit traits from

with some researchers claiming

Eysenck’s psychoticism dimension,

was a well-known film actress,

that creativity can only be judged

particularly over-inclusive thinking,

and his Catholic father, Eduard,

on what it produces. Eysenck

independence, and nonconformity.

was a stage performer. His

felt unable to propose a fully

parents separated soon after

developed theory of creativity,

his birth, and he was raised

respond with the word “shoe;” a

only a suggestion for one. As he

by his maternal grandmother.

slightly wider range of inclusive

said, “I am linking several fuzzy

In 1934 he discovered that

thinking might contain the words

theories.” His work ranged over

he could only study at Berlin

“hand” or “toe,” while an over-

many areas, though he is best

University if he joined the

inclusive person might generate

known for his exploration into

Nazi party, so he traveled to

words such as “soldier” or “sore.”

personality and intelligence. His

England to study psychology

This kind of test makes it possible

PEN (Psychoticism, Extraversion,

at University College London.

to measure people’s creativity.

Neuroticism) model was hugely

He married in 1938 and

It is the element of over-inclusive

influential, and acted as the

after narrowly escaping

internment as a German

thinking that Eysenck demonstrated

basis for much of the later

citizen during World War II, he

to be a common feature of both

research into personality traits. ■

completed a PhD, and took up

psychoticism and creativity. When

work as a psychologist at an

over-inclusive thinking and high IQ

emergency hospital. He later

are present together, creative

founded and then headed the

genius will result, because the

Institute of Psychiatry at the

combination generates creative and

University of London. Eysenck

original ideas. This is the cognitive

married again in 1950, and

characteristic that lies at the base

Psychoticism in the absence

became a British citizen in

of creativity. When over-inclusive

of psychosis… is the vital

1955. He was diagnosed with a

thinking and psychotic symptoms

element in translating the

brain tumor in 1996 and died

are present together, psychosis, in

trait of creativity (originality)

in a London hospice in 1997.

varying degrees, may result.

from potential to actual

Key works

achievement.

Creativity and personality

Hans J. Eysenck

1967
The Biological Basis of

Eysenck believed that creativity is

Personality

a personality trait that provides the

1976
Psychoticism as a

potential for creative achievement,

Dimension of Personality

but the realization of that potential

1983
The Roots of Creativity

lies in the character trait of

322

THREE KEY

MOTIVATIONS

DRIVE PERFORMANCE

DAVID C. MCCLELLAND (1917–1998)

IN CONTEXT

Motivation
is a key component of job performance.

APPROACH

Need theory

BEFORE

But what people say about their motives

1938
American psychologist

cannot be taken at face value
...

Henry Murray develops his

theory of how personality is

shaped by psychogenic needs.

1943
Abraham Maslow’s
A

...because motivations are largely
unconscious
.

Theory of Human Motivation

presents his hierarchy of needs.

1959
In
Motivation to Work
, US

psychologist Frederick Herzberg

Tests reveal that there are three key

states that achievement, rather

motivations that drive performance.

than money, motives people.

AFTER

1990
In
Flow: The Psychology

of Optimal Experience
, Mihály

Csíkszentmihályi discusses

Achievement:
the drive to

motivation for achievement.

excel and improve in all efforts.

2002
Martin Seligman explores

motivation as the expression of

character strengths.

2004
In
Leadership That Gets

Affiliation:
the drive to

Power:
the drive to

Results
, US psychologist Daniel

form and maintain warm

influence and manage

Goleman applies McClelland’s

relationships with

other people.

other people.

ideas to leadership in business.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 323

See also:
Abraham Maslow 138–39 ■ Mihály Csíkszentmihályi 198–99 ■

Martin Seligman 200–01

I
n the 1960s and 70s, decisions the unconscious. We are not fully

about whether to employ

aware of our own motivations, he

someone or not were usually

stated, so what we may say about

based on educational achievement,

our motives in job interviews or

and the results of personality and IQ

self-report questionnaires should

tests. David C. McClelland, however,

not be taken at face value. He

suggested that peoples’ motivations

advocated using the Thematic

were the best predictor of success

Apperception Test (TAT), which

in the workplace. Through extensive

psychologists Henry Murray and

research, he identified the three key

Christiana Morgan devised in

motivations that he believed were

the 1930s as a way of revealing

David C. McClelland

responsible for job performance: the

aspects of the unconscious. Rarely

need for power, for achievement,

used in a business setting, the test

David Clarence McClelland

was born in Mount Vernon,

and for affiliation. While everyone

presents a series of pictures to the

New York. After graduating

has all three motivations, he

subject, who is then asked to

from Wesleyan University,

maintained that one would be

develop a story based on them.

Connecticut, and gaining

dominant, shaping a person’s

The assumption is that the stories

an MA at the University of

performance in the workplace.

will be a projection of the subject’s

Missouri, he moved to Yale,

underlying abilities and motivations.

where he completed his PhD

Three key needs

McClelland went on to devise an

in experimental psychology

McClelland saw the need for power,

innovative way of analyzing TAT

in 1941. He taught briefly at

or to have control over others, as

responses to allow a comparison

several universities, before

the most important motivation for

between the suitability of the

accepting a position at

a good manager or leader. But this

different people who took the test

Harvard in 1956. McClelland

is only true as long as the need for