The Psychology Book (105 page)

than scientific in the modern sense. It was only with major advances

in the biological sciences in the second half of the 19th century that a truly scientific analysis of our mental processes became possible—giving rise to

psychology as a distinct area of study. The ideas and discoveries of some

of the key researchers in the field have been examined already in this

book, but many more have contributed to the growth of psychology as a

respected science in its own right. From structuralists to behaviorists, from psychoanalysts to cognative therapists, the people discussed below have

all helped deepen our understanding of our uniqueness as human beings.

JOHN DEWEY

methods of cross-cultural analysis

See also:
Wilhelm Wundt 32–37 ■

Rivers used on an expedition to the

William James 38–45 ■ J.P. Guilford

1859–1952

Torres Straits Pacific islands laid

304–05 ■ Edwin Boring 335

the foundations for future field study.

American John Dewey greatly

See also:
Wilhelm Wundt 32–37 ■

influenced the development of the

Hermann Ebbinghaus 48–49 ■

WILLIAM STERN

science and philosophy of human

Sigmund Freud 92–99

1871–1938

thought in the first half of the 20th

century. Although primarily a

German-born William Stern was a

behaviorist psychologist, his

EDWARD B. TITCHENER

leading figure in the establishment

application of the philosophy of

of developmental psychology. His

1867–1927

pragmatism on society had a major

first book,
Psychology of Early

impact on educational thinking

Englishman Edward Bradford

Childhood
(1914), was based on

and practice in the US.

Titchener studied experimental

observations of his own three

See also:
William James 38–45 ■

psychology, first at Oxford and then

children over 18 years. His

G. Stanley Hall 46–47

in Germany under Wilhelm Wundt.

method—“personalistic

He moved to the US in 1892, where

psychology”—investigated the

W.H.R. RIVERS

he became known as the founder of

individual developmental path,

Structural Psychology, which breaks

combining applied, differential,

1864–1922

down the experiences of humanity

genetic, and general psychology. A

and arranges them into elemental

pioneer in forensic psychology, he

William Halse Rivers Rivers was an

structures. As Structural Psychology

was the first to use the nomothetic-

English surgeon, neurologist, and

is based on introspection, it was at

idiographic approach. Stern is best

psychiatrist who specialized in the

odds with behaviorism, which was

remembered for his work on the

relationship between the mind and

growing in popularity. By the 1920s,

intelligence quotient (IQ) tests to

the body. He published several key

Titchener was fairly isolated in his

calculate a child’s intelligence. A

papers on neurological conditions,

beliefs, though he was still widely

single-number score is awarded

including hysteria. He is best known

admired. He wrote several textbooks

by dividing the “mental age” of the

for his work on “shell shock” (post-

on psychology including:
An Outline

test-taker by his or her “chronological

traumatic stress disorder), and is

of Psychology
(1896),
Experimental

age” and multiplying by 100.

also considered one of the founders

Psychology
(1901–1905), and
A

See also:
Alfred Binet 50–53 ■

of medical anthropology. The

Textbook of Psychology
(1910).

Jean Piaget 262–69

DIRECTORY 335

CHARLES SAMUEL MYERS Experiments. Using disciplines

Testing
(1929) and
Hypnosis and

drawn from psychology, physiology,

Suggestibility
(1933). Informed by

1873–1946

and anthropology, he examined over

his objective behaviorist approach,

a five-year period the productivity

Hull’s
Mathematico-Deductive

At Cambridge University, Myers

and morale of six female workers as

Theory of Rote Learning
(1940)

studied experimental psychology

he made changes to their working

measured all behavior (including

under W.H.R. Rivers, and in 1912 he

conditions. The most surprising

animal) by a single mathematical

set up the Cambridge Laboratory of

outcome was the way the workers

equation. He developed the theory

Experimental Psychology. During

responded to the research itself.

in
Principles of Behavior
(1943),

World War I, he treated soldiers for

The Hawthorne Effect, as it is now

which examined the effects of

“shell shock” (a term he invented).

known, is an alteration in human

reinforcement on the stimulus-

After the war, he was a key figure

behavior that occurs when people

response connection. His Global

in the development of occupational

know they are being studied. This

Theory of Behavior was

psychology. His books include

discovery had a lasting impact on

one of the standard systems of

Mind and Work
(1920),
Industrial

industrial ethics and relations, and

psychological research at the time.

Psychology in Great Britain
(1926),

research methods in social science.

See also:
Jean-Martin Charcot 30

and
In the Realm of Mind
(1937).

See also:
Sigmund Freud 92–99

■ Alfred Binet 50-53 ■ Ivan Pavlov

See also:
Kurt Lewin 218–23 ■

■ Carl Jung 102–07

60–61 ■ Edward Thorndike 62–65

Solomon Asch 224–27 ■ Raymond

Cattell 314–15 ■ W.R.H. Rivers 334

HERMANN RORSCHACH

EDWIN BORING

MAX WERTHEIMER

1884–1922

1886–1968

1880–1943

As a Swiss schoolboy, Rorschach

One of the most important figures

was called Klek (Inkblot), because

in experimental psychology, Boring

Together with Kurt Koffka and

he was always drawing. He later

specialized in human sensory and

Wolfgang Köhler, Czech psychologist

devised the inkblot test, whereby

perceptual systems. His

Max Wertheimer founded Gestalt

responses to specific blots may

interpretation of W.E. Hill’s reversible

psychology in the US in the 1930s.

reveal emotional, character, and

old woman/young maid drawing led

Gestalt built on existing theories of

thought disorders. He died, aged 37,

to it becoming known as the Boring

perceptual organization. Moving

a year after his “form interpretation

Figure. At Harvard in the 1920s,

away from Wundt’s molecularism,

test”
Psychodiagnostics
(1921) was

Boring moved the psychology

Wertheimer advocated the study of

published. Others later developed

department away from psychiatry,

the whole, famously saying “the

the test, but this gave rise to four

turning it into a rigorously scientific

whole is more than the sum of its

different methods, each flawed. In

school that unified structuralism and

parts.” He also devised Pragnanz,

1993, American John Exner united

behaviorism. His first book,
A

the idea that the mind processes

them all in the Comprehensive

History of Experimental Psychology

visual information into the simplest

System—one of the most enduring

(1929), was followed by
Sensation

forms of symmetry and shape.

psychoanalytical experiments.

and Perception in the History of

See also:
Abraham Maslow 138–39

See also:
Alfred Binet 50–53 ■

Experimental Psychology
(1942).

■ Solomon Asch 224–27

Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ Carl Jung

See also:
Wilhelm Wundt 32–37 ■

102–07

Edward B. Titchener 334

ELTON MAYO

1880–1949

CLARK L. HULL

FREDERIC BARTLETT

1884–1952

1886–1969

In the 1930s, while Professor of

Industrial Management at Harvard,

American Clark Leonard Hull’s early

Frederic Bartlett was Cambridge

Australian Elton Mayo carried out

studies included psychometrics and

University’s first Professor of

his groundbreaking Hawthorne

hypnosis. He published
Aptitude

Experimental Psychology (1931–51).

336 DIRECTORY

He is known for his memory

Edward Thorndike and Charles

induces a trance by confusing the

experiments where participants were

Spearman, administering the Army

mind with a moment of “behavioral

asked to read an unfamiliar, mythical

Alpha Test for group intelligence. He

void” as the flow of the handshake

story composed by Bartlett (such as

later developed Binet’s tests, adding

is interrupted. Considered the

The War of the Ghosts) before

nonverbal reasoning. Wechsler

founder of hypnotherapy treatment,

retelling it. Many added details that

believed intelligence lies not only in

Erickson was also a major influence

were not in the original story, or

the ability to think rationally, but also

on the growth of family therapy,

changed meanings to fit their own

in the ability to act purposefully

solution-focused therapy, systemic

specific culture. Bartlett concluded

and to deal effectively with one’s

therapy, and a number of brief-

that they were not remembering but

environment. In 1939, the Wechsler-

therapy treatments, including NLP

rather reconstructing the text.

Bellevue Intelligence Scale was

(neuro-linguistic programming).

See also:
Endel Tulving 186–91 ■

published, followed a decade later by

See also:
B.F. Skinner 78–85 ■

Gordon H. Bower 194–95 ■ W.H.R.

the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for

Stanley Milgram 246–53.

Rivers 334

Children (1949). The Wechsler Adult

Intelligence Scale (1955) is still the

ALEXANDER LURIA

CHARLOTTE BUHLER

most widely used intelligence test.

See also:
Francis Galton 28–29 ■

1902–1977

1893–1974

Alfred Binet 50–53 ■ David C.

McClelland 322–23

Born in Kazan, Russia, Luria studied

German-born Bühler founded the

at Moscow’s Institute of Psychology.

Vienna Institute of Psychology in

His work on reaction times and

1922 with her husband, Karl. Her

NANCY BAYLEY

thought processes resulted in his

studies of childhood personality and

1899–1994

“combined motor method” and the

cognitive development expanded

first ever lie-detector machine. He

to include the course of human

Nancy Bayley, an eminent American