The Psychology Book (107 page)

dogmatism examined the cognitive

mathematical methods rather than

cognition is affected by an

characteristics of closed- and open-

clinical analysis. In 1962, he found a

individual’s physiological state.

mindedness (
The Open and Closed

genetic link to schizophrenia, which

See also:
William James 38–45 ■

Mind
, 1960). Rokeach’s Dogmatism

until then had been attributed to

Leon Festinger 166–67

Scale, an ideology- and content-free

poor parenting. His studies of

way to measure closed-mindedness,

determinism and free will focusing

is still used, and the Rokeach Value

on quantum indeterminacy were

HEINZ HECKHAUSEN

Survey is viewed as one of the most

published as
The Determinism-

1926–1988

effective ways of measuring beliefs

Freedom and Mind-Body Problems

and values in particular groups. In

(with Herbert Feigl, 1974)

German psychologist Heinz

The Great American Values Test
,

See also:
B.F. Skinner 78–85 ■

Heckhausen was a world expert

Rokeach
et al
. measured changes

David Rosenhan 328–29

on motivational psychology. He

DIRECTORY 339

completed a postdoctoral

its development had neglected the

(never having had something), and

dissertation on hopes and fears of

role of perception. His specialism is

linked antisocial behavior to family

success and failure, and his early

memory, and in 1995 he chaired the

discord rather than maternal

work on childhood motivational

American Psychological Association

deprivation.

development led to the Advanced

task force “Intelligence, Knowns

See also:
John Bowlby 272–77 ■

Cognitive Model of Motivation

and Unknowns,” which examined

Simon Baron-Cohen 298–99

(Heckhausen & Rheinberg, 1980).

theories of intelligence testing. His

His book
Motivation and Action

papers were published as the book

(1980), coauthored with his

The Rising Curve: Long-Term Gains

FRIEDEMANN SCHULZ

psychologist daughter, Jutta, has

in IQ and Related Measures
(1998).

VON THUN

had a lasting influence.

See also:
George Armitage Miller

1944–

See also:
Zing-Yang Kuo 75 ■

168–73 ■ Donald Broadbent 178–85

Albert Bandura 286–91 ■ Simon

German psychologist Friedemann

Baron-Cohen 298–99

JEROME KAGAN

Schulz von Thun is famous for his

Communication Model, published

1929–

in the three-volume
To Talk With

ANDRE GREEN

Each Other
(1981, 1989, 1998). Von

Kagan, a leading American figure in

Thun says there are four levels of

1927–

developmental psychology, believed

communication in every part of a

André Green, an Egyptian-born

that physiology had more influence

conversation: speaking factually;

French psychoanalyst, developed an

on psychological characteristics

making a statement about

interest in communications theory

than the environment. His work on

ourselves; commenting on our

and cybernetics while an intern for

the biological aspects of childhood

relationship to the other person;

Jacques Lacan in the 1950s. He later

development—apprehension and

or asking the other person to do

became a harsh critic of Lacan who,

fear-revealed effects on self-

something. He says that when

he said, put too much emphasis on

consciousness, morality, memory,

people speak and listen on different

symbolic and structural form, which

and symbolism—laid foundations

levels, misunderstandings occur.

invalidated his Freudian claims. In

for research on the physiology of

See also:
B.F. Skinner 78–85 ■

the late 1960s, Green returned to the

temperament. His work influenced

Kurt Lewin 218–223

Freudian roots of analysis with his

studies of behavior in fields far

exploration of the negative. This

beyond psychology, including crime,

was most elegantly expressed in his

education, sociology, and politics.

JOHN D. TEASDALE

paper,
The Dead Mother
(1980), in

See also:
Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■

1944–

which the mother is psychologically

Jean Piaget 262–69

dead to the child, but, as she is still

British psychologist Teasdale

there, confuses and frightens him.

See also:
Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■

MICHAEL RUTTER

investigated cognitive approaches

to depression. With Zindel Segal

Donald Winnicott 118–21 ■ Jacques

1933–

and Mark Williams, he developed

Lacan 122–23 ■ Françoise Dolto 279

the technique called Mindfulness-

British psychiatrist Michael Rutter

Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT).

has transformed our understanding

This combines cognitive therapy

ULRIC NEISSER

of child development issues and

with mindfulness and Eastern

behavior problems. In
Maternal

meditation techniques, asking

1928–

Deprivation Reassessed
(1972), he

patients with recurrent major

The best-known book by German-

rejected John Bowlby’s selective

depression to engage with negative

American Neisser is
Cognitive

attachment theory, showing that

thoughts intentionally, rather than

Psychology
(1967), which outlines a

multiple attachments in childhood

automatically, and to observe them

psychological approach focused on

were normal. His later research

from a more detached perspective.

mental processes. He later criticized

revealed a split between deprivation

See also:
Gordon H. Bower 194–95

cognitive psychology, feeling that

(a loss of something) and privation

■ Aaron Beck 174–77

340

GLOSSARY

Anecdotal method
The use of

Behavior modification
The

Collective unconscious
In Carl

observational (often unscientific)

use of proven behavior change

Jung’s theory, the deepest level

reports as research data.

techniques to control or modify the

of the psyche, which contains

behavior of individuals or groups.

inherited psychic dispositions

Archetypes
In Carl Jung’s theory,

through the
archetypes
.

the inherited patterns or frameworks

Behaviorism
A psychological

within the
collective unconscious

approach that insists that only

Conditioned response (CR)

that act to organize our experiences.

observable behavior should form

A particular response elicited by

Archetypes often feature in myths

the object of study, as this can

an initially neutral stimulus that has

and narratives.

be witnessed, described, and

been paired with an
unconditioned

measured in objective terms.

stimulus
, which naturally provokes

Association
i)
A philosophical

that response.

explanation for the formation of

Central traits
In Gordon

knowledge, stating that it results

Allport’s theory, the six or so

Conditioned stimulus (CS)
In

from the linking or association of

main personality traits that are

classical conditioning, a stimulus

simple ideas to form complex ideas.

used to describe a person, such as

that comes to elicit a particular

ii)
A link between two psychological

“shy” or “good natured.” These are

(conditioned) response by virtue

processes, formed as a result of

the “building blocks” of personality.

of having been paired with an

their pairing in past experience.

unconditional stimulus
.

Classical conditioning
A type

Associationism
An approach

of learning in which a neutral

Contiguity
The close occurrence of

that claims that inborn or acquired

stimulus acquires the capacity

two ideas or events. This is thought

neural links bind stimuli and

to trigger a particular response

to be necessary for
association
.

responses together, resulting in

by becoming paired with an

distinct patterns of behavior.

unconditional stimulus.

Control group
Participants in an

experiment who are not exposed to

Attachment
An emotionally

Cognitive
To do with mental

the manipulation of the researchers

important relationship in which one

processes, such as perception,

during an experiment.

individual seeks proximity to and

memory, or thinking.

derives security from the presence

Correlation
A statistical term for

of another, particularly infants to

Cognitive dissonance
An

the tendency of two data sets or

parental figures.

inconsistency between beliefs

variables to vary in a similar way in

or feelings, which leads to a

a certain set of circumstances. It is

Attention
A collective term for

state of tension.

often mistaken for causation.

the processes used in selective,

focused perception.

Cognitive psychology
A

Crystallized intelligence
The

psychological approach that

collected skills, cognitive abilities,

Autism
The informal term for

focuses on the mental processes

and strategies acquired through

autistic spectrum disorder

involved in learning and knowing,

the use of fluid intelligence. It is

(ASD)—a cluster of mental

and how the mind actively

said to increase with age.

dysfunctions that is characterized

organizes experiences.

by extreme self-absorption and lack

Defense mechanisms
In

of empathy, repetitive motor

Cognitive style
The habitual

psychoanalytic theory, mental

activities, and the impairment of

way in which an individual

reactions that occur to ward off

language and conceptual skills.

processes information.

anxiety by unconscious means.