The Psychology Book (45 page)

and the world are justified.

infinite possibilities
for us.

themselves and their childhood,

especially negative ones, about

This is not to say one turns a blind

their symptoms unfortunately

events. For example, if a man who

eye to negative factors in favor of

remained. It seemed that when one

is an irrational thinker loses his job,

naïve, positive beliefs—rational

problem was resolved, the patient

to him it is not merely unfortunate,

thinking does acknowledge

would put another in its place.

but
awful
. He believes that he is

reasonable feelings of sorrow, guilt,

The issue, Ellis decided, lay in the

worthless because he was fired,

and frustration. The rational thinker

way the person was thinking (their

and that he will never find another

may lose her job; it may have even

cognition), and it required more

job. Ellis describes irrational

been her fault that she lost the job,

than insight to change it.

beliefs as illogical, extreme,

but she knows she is not worthless.

damaging, and self-sabotaging

She may be upset with herself, but

Irrational thinking

because they cause unhealthy

she knows that rationally there is

Ellis began to describe his way

emotional consequences.

the possibility of another job.

of working as Rational Therapy

Rational thinking creates the

Rational thinking is balanced and

because he believed that the

opposite effect. Ellis defines

always allows room for optimism

majority of long-standing emotional

rational thinking as helpful to the

and possibilities; it creates healthy

problems are almost always due to

self. It is based on tolerance and

emotional consequences.

irrational thinking. One of the most

the ability to bear distress without

Ellis’s notion of irrational

common ways in which irrationality

assuming catastrophic negative

thinking is influenced by Karen

occurs, he says, is the tendency to

conclusions, and is rooted in a

Horney’s idea of the “tyranny of

draw extreme conclusions,

belief in positive human potential.

the shoulds”—a preoccupation ❯❯

144 ALBERT ELLIS

reaction becomes inextricably

linked to the event itself. However,

Ellis aimed to teach people to

recognize how an event may

contribute to a feeling, but it does

not directly cause that feeling. Our

People and things do

emotional response depends on

not upset us. Rather, we

the meaning we put on what took

upset ourselves by

place, which in turn is governed

believing that they

by rational or irrational thinking.

can upset us.

As the name implies, Rational

Albert Ellis

Emotive Behavior Therapy

examines both the emotional

If someone has
been unlucky

response (a cognitive process) and

in love they may feel sad and rejected.

the behavior. The links between

However, there is a difference between

these two flow in both directions:

feeling these emotions and allowing

it is possible to change your

them to become a belief system.

thinking through changing your

with the idea that something

behavior, and to change your

to irrational responses. This

should (magically) be different from

behavior through changing your

process is known as “disputing.”

how it is. The struggle to reconcile

thinking. Ellis suggests that the

For instance, some people hold the

these thoughts with reality is a

way to change one’s thinking

belief that “I am the only really

painful and unending one. Rational

involves being able to recognize

dependable person I know” or “I am

thinking, on the other hand, focuses

and then dispute irrational

destined to be always alone in this

on acceptance; it maintains the

beliefs, challenging them with

world.” In therapy, the individual is

balanced sense that sometimes

rational thoughts.

encouraged to search their personal

things happen that we would prefer

history to find rationalizations for

not to, but they are a part of life.

Challenging beliefs

these belief systems. Someone who

During REBT, an individual is

has been through the break-up of

Conditioned response

asked to consider whether they

several relationships may have the

We become so used to our responses

have several overriding beliefs

delusion that it is their “destiny to

to people and events that they

about themselves and their

be alone” or that they are somehow

appear to be almost automatic; our

position in life as these contribute

“unlovable.” REBT encourages

Albert Ellis

Albert Ellis was born in Pittsburgh,

considered to have led the shift

Pennsylvania. His father was

toward cognitive behavioral

often away on business and his

therapy. He is recognized as

mother suffered from bipolar

one of the most influential

disease; Ellis frequently took

psychologists in the US. He

care of his three younger siblings.

wrote more than 70 books,

Ellis began a career in business

continuing to write and teach

and then became an author,

until his death at the age of 93.

before his writing on sexuality

led him to start studying clinical

Key works

psychology at Columbia University

in 1942. Initially, Ellis practiced

1957
How to Live with a

psychoanalysis and was influenced

Neurotic

by Sigmund Freud, Albert Adler,

1961
A Guide to Rational Living

and Erich Fromm. However, his

1962
Reason and Emotion in

Rational Therapy broke away from

Psychotherapy

psychoanalytic theory and is

1998
Optimal Aging

PSYCHOTHERAPY 145

people to allow for the pain of loss

choose healthier pathways; and

or loneliness, and to logically

how to internalize and habituate

evaluate factors that led to the loss;

new, more beneficial beliefs. In

but discourages the practice of

so doing, the therapist becomes

believing that one or two instances

obsolete—once the client grasps

mean that something will always

the idea of becoming self-aware

The best years of your life are

happen, and therefore being happy

in decision-making, and choosing

the ones in which you decide

is impossible.

deliberately (and often differently),

your problems are your own…

One of the difficulties inherent

the therapist is no longer needed.

You realize that you control

in irrational thinking is that it tends

your own destiny.

to perpetuate itself, because in

An active therapy

Albert Ellis

thinking, for instance, “nothing

Albert Ellis’s theories challenged

good ever happens to me,” there

the slow-moving methodology of

is little or no motivation to seek

psychoanalysis and created the

opportunities where good things

first form of cognitive behavioral

might happen. The irrational

therapy, an approach that is popular

thinker sees the possibilities of

today. He was an active and

having a good experience as so

directive therapist and in place of

unlikely that he gives up searching

long-term, passive psychoanalysis,

action, action,” he said. REBT

for them. It also makes him blind

he put the work and power squarely

became one of the most popular

to the good things that do happen.

in the hands of the client—an

therapies of the 1970s and 80s, and

Many people express the self-

approach that prefigured Carl

was highly influential on the work

perpetuating belief: “Yes, I have

Rogers. He also emphasized that

of Aaron Beck, who described Ellis

tried, and
I know
that good things

theorizing was not enough—“you

as an “explorer, revolutionary,

never happen,” which rationalizes

have to back it up with action,

therapist, theorist, and teacher.” ■

and reinforces their belief system.

Irrational thinking is “black and

REBT identifies
the

Adversity:
An event that

white;” it stops an individual from

patterns of irrational

may cause mental distress.

recognizing the full spectrum of

thinking that lead to

possible experiences. If a faulty

unhealthy and entrenched

belief system leads us to always

beliefs, and describes

I’ve lost my job!

interpret situations negatively,

how to challenge them.

then it prevents the possibility

of alternate positive experiences.

Beliefs:
The initial

Though it often appears that “seeing

(irrational) thoughts

Consequences:
The feelings

is believing,” the reality is that

about the event.

caused by these beliefs.

what we believe is what we see.

I’m worthless.

Constructivist theory

I’m depressed

I’ll never get

and anxious.

REBT is a constructivist theory,

another job!

suggesting that although our

preferences are influenced by

our upbringing and culture, we

construct our own beliefs and

Disputation:
Taking

Effect:
Revised and rational

reality. As a therapy, it attempts

a rational look at beliefs.

beliefs about the event.

to reveal people’s inflexible and

absolutist thoughts, feelings, and

Hang on, I’m looking

I’ll be able to get

actions; and helps them see how

at this all wrong!

another job—it’s not

they are choosing to “disturb

that bad.

themselves,” as Ellis puts it. It

suggests how to think of and