The Psychology Book (69 page)

advertising, which began to play

to the fore, and the work of social

are sometimes blamed for what

an increasingly important role in

psychologists such as Janet Taylor

happens to them, and Elliot Aronson

modern society. Mass media and

Spence did much to alter attitudes

explained that apparently aberrant

advertising in turn had a growing

toward women, while others

behavior could be the result of

effect on social structures,

used Lewin’s process of social

circumstances rather than insanity.

prompting theories of social

transformation to bring

More controversially, especially at a

constructivism by psychologists

about organizational changes.

time when the atrocities of World

such as Serge Moscovici.

Theories and models pioneered

War II were still fresh in people’s

As a result, social psychology

by social psychologists are now

minds, experiments by Stanley

has rapidly become more

used by business, industry, and

Milgram and Philip Zimbardo

applicable to many different

all kinds of social organizations,

showed just how far the need to obey

situations. It has influenced other

and more recently have been

and conform affects our behavior.

areas of psychology—in particular

adopted as a means of achieving

psychotherapy, through William

social and political reform in

Applying psychology

Glasser’s “reality therapy.” It has

societies suffering from

The advent of cognitive psychology

also impacted on other disciplines,

oppression, most notably in

brought a new influence on social

including sociology, anthropology,

the “Liberation Psychology”

psychology. The effects of cognitive

and even politics and economics.

espoused by Ignacio Martín-Baró. ■

YOU CANNOT

UNDERSTAND

A SYSTEM UNTIL YOU TRY TO

CH

KURT LEWA

IN (1N

890– GE

1947)

IT

220 KURT LEWIN

IN CONTEXT

APPROACH

T
he behaviorists believed

that behavior is dictated by

the environment alone, but

in the 1920s Kurt Lewin made the

Field theory

claim that behavior is a result of

BEFORE

both the individual and the

A person who has learned

environment. His revolutionary

Early 1900s
Sigmund Freud

to see how much his own

ideas developed and evolved into

and other psychotherapists

fate depends upon the fate

the study of group dynamics that is

argue that human behavior

of his entire group will be

invaluable to organizations today.

is a result of past experience.

eager to take over a fair share

In his investigation of human

1910s
Wolfgang Köhler,

of responsibility for its welfare.

behavior, Lewin developed field

among other Gestalt

theory, which explores the forces

Kurt Lewin

psychologists, argues that

and factors that influence any given

people must be understood

situation. Lewin’s “field” refers to

holistically, according to all

the psychological environment of

of their elements and their

the individual or the collective

interactions with the

group at a particular point in time,

surrounding environment.

and he identified two opposing

forces present in any given field:

successfully, a person or organization

AFTER

helpful forces, which drive people

leader must take into account the

1958
In
The Dynamics of

toward achieving their goals, and

various influences at play both

Planned Change
, Ronald

hindering forces, which inhibit

within the minds of individuals

Lippitt, Jeanne Watson, and

movement toward these goals.

and within their environment.

Bruce Westley create a seven-

In explaining his change model,

step change theory that

Lewin’s change model

Lewin emphasizes that the entire

focuses on the role of the

Field theory provided the basis for

situation, including all the relevant

change agent rather than on

Lewin’s model of change, which

personal and environmental details,

the evolution of change itself.

offers an invaluable guide for

must be taken into account, as

successful transformation, both

focusing on isolated facts can lead

for individuals and organizations.

to a skewed perception of the

The model shows that in order

circumstances. Not only must you

to carry out the process of change

have a thorough and holistic

In order for a change of behavior

As a change occurs, more

to take place, details about both
the

key qualities and values

individual and the environment

of a system are revealed.

must be taken into account.

You cannot understand

Therefore the
change process

a system until you try

itself
offers important information

to change it.

about a system.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 221

See also:
Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ Wolfgang Köhler 160–61 ■ Leon Festinger 166–67 ■ Max Wertheimer 335 ■

Elton Mayo 335

Successful organizational change

is engendered by making a unique

diagnosis of the people and situational

forces involved, and understanding

the interplay between them.

understanding of a situation in

order to change it, but that

understanding actually deepens

throughout the change process, and

therefore “you cannot understand a

system until you try to change it.”

Lewin’s model describes a three-

step process for achieving personal

or organizational transformation.

The first stage—which he called

“unfreezing”—involves recognizing

that change is necessary, and

dismantling old beliefs and

practices. Change occurs in the

unlearning, difficult relearning,

zone and undergo the challenge

second stage, and is often

and the restructuring of thoughts,

of learning new skills or accepting

accompanied by confusion and

feelings, attitudes, and perceptions.

a new set of beliefs. This natural

distress as the old mindset or

resistance can be overcome if the

system breaks down. The third and

Unfreezing beliefs

individual is helped to accept that

final stage, “freezing,” occurs when

The unfreezing stage is perhaps

the change is necessary, valid,

a new mindset is crystallized and

the most complex stage of the

and will lead to the best outcome,

there is an accompanying sense of

process, as people are naturally

and if support is given to engender

comfort and stability within the

inclined to resist changes to their

a feeling of psychological safety.

new framework. The process is

established mindsets and routines.

Lewin demonstrated the

difficult because it involves painful

It requires careful preparation;

positive effect of creating an

many change efforts within

environment of psychological

organizations fail simply because

safety during the unfreezing stage

employees are not adequately

(and of allowing active participation

prepared, making them more

in the change process) in his

resistant to change and less likely

efforts to convince American

to function effectively under the

housewives to serve animal organs

We all need each

new system. Preparation might

as food at home during World

other. This type of

include creating an exciting vision

War II. Historically, offal had only

interdependence is the

for change that employees can

been eaten by low-income families,

greatest challenge to

rally around, communicating it

but the American government

the maturity of individual

effectively, developing a sense of

wanted to ensure that nutritious

and group functioning.

urgency and necessity for change,

food was not going to waste during

Kurt Lewin

providing employees with support,

a time of food shortages, especially

and allowing them to participate

as kidneys, livers, and hearts

actively in the process.

are all high-protein foods. The US

On an individual level, people

Department of Agriculture called

may react to this stage defensively,

upon Lewin to help convince

not wanting to leave their comfort

housewives to include these ❯❯