The Psychology Book (93 page)

process occurs for everyone,

grammar” is found worldwide, with

call universal grammar.

whether they have grown up in

modifications according to people’s

Noam Chomsky

Paris, Tokyo, or London.

native languages. It is a predefined

mechanism that acts as the basis

Universal grammar

for the acquisition of any language.

But where is the proof that language

He argues that this is demonstrated

acquisition is inborn rather than

by the way that all children are

learned? According to Chomsky,

equally able to learn any language

the most convincing evidence for

to which they are exposed. He says

this claim is that there are aspects

that a common set of linguistic

(LAD). He bases his claim for its

of grammar that are so intuitive

features is built into the language

existence on three things: the

and self-evident that they need

organ through heredity, and it

fact that children are born with

never be discussed or learned in

includes elements of grammar,

the capacity to formulate and

order to be understood (they are

meaning, and speech. It is what

understand all kinds of sentences

therefore part of our biological

makes it possible for us to speak

despite never having heard or

inheritance). For instance, there

and learn human languages, and

learned them; that every human

are certain constructions in the

may make it impossible for us to

language appears to have certain

English language that permit the

learn any language that violates

universal elements; and that some

dropping of pronouns, and others

these principles.

grammatical principles are

that do not. The difference between

acquired by individuals regardless

the two is subtle, yet even by the

Language device

of their culture or intelligence.

age of six, native English-speaking

Chomsky proposes a name for

There is other supporting evidence

children will use the constructions

our innate language organ: the

as well, including the fact that the

flawlessly. This implies that certain

Language Acquisition Device

human vocal organs, breathing

Noam Chomsky

Linguist, philosopher, cognitive

have made him a highly

scientist, and social activist

controversial figure. He has

Noam Chomsky was born in

won several honorary degrees

Pennsylvania to Jewish parents.

as well as being a recipient of

He studied philosophy and

the Distinguished Scientific

linguistics at the University

Contribution Award, the

of Pennsylvania, where he earned

Dorothy Eldridge Peacemaker

his bachelor’s, master’s, and

Award, and the Orwell Award.

doctoral degrees. Chomsky joined

He was married to linguist

the Massachusetts Institute of

Carol Schatz for 59 years

Technology in 1955, becoming an

until her death in 2008.

Institute Professor in 1976.

Chomsky is widely known as

Key works

one of the fathers of modern

linguistics, but he is also a

1957
Syntactic Structures

political dissident and anarchist.

1965
Cartesian Linguistics

His criticisms of US foreign policy

1968
Language and Mind

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 297

evolved, arguing that language

environment could also be a factor.

represents a distinct mental module

There is also some degree of doubt

that is unique to human beings and

surrounding Chomsky’s assumption

completely independent of general

that language is unique to human

cognitive ability.

beings. Data from studies with

Linguist Jean Aitchison is also

chimpanzees and gorillas has

in agreement with Chomsky’s

suggested that the difference

claim that children are hard-wired

between ape and human language is

with knowledge of linguistic rules,

quantitative rather than qualitative,

but her view is that children have

which raises questions about how

built-in problem-solving abilities

species-specific language really is.

that enable them to process

Chomsky’s work has been

linguistic data (and other forms

highly influential across linguistics,

Deaf children communicate
using

of data). Chomsky maintains,

psychology, philosophy, and even

a “gestural language,” which has the

same characteristics as spoken

however, that human beings’

mathematics. Although the idea

language, suggesting that knowledge

innate language ability exists

that children are predisposed to

of grammar and syntax is innate.

independently of other abilities, and

learn language is widely accepted,

because the mind is constructed of

his claim that children have an

apparatus, auditory system, and

mental organs similar to those of

innate knowledge of language that

brain are all specialized for spoken

the body, language can easily be

is not deeply influenced by their

communication. Chomsky argues

isolated from other mental faculties.

parents is highly controversial.

that, in light of the frequency with

Criticism also comes from

He has been widely considered the

which children are exposed to the

Robin Chapman, an expert in

most extreme nativist in the history

ungrammatical and incomplete

communicative disorders, who

of psychology, and although a

speech uttered by their parents and

argues that the study of language

biological source for language

other adults, only some kind of LAD

development should also be

development is widely thought

can explain the fact that children

understood within the context of

to be nearer the truth than one

seem to possess knowledge of

children’s social interactions. She

involving operant conditioning, it

grammatical rules. Finally, studies

notes that language structure is

is still unlikely to offer the complete

of deaf children provide further

acquired piecemeal over several

picture. Chomsky’s work has led to

evidence for an LAD, revealing the

years, and that there are wide

the emergence of more integrated

untutored emergence of a “gestural

variations in how rapidly children

views, which will no doubt lead to

language” that shares the basic

acquire it, suggesting that social

new research and understanding. ■

principles of spoken language.

Evaluation

Cognitive scientist Steven Pinker

agrees that language is an instinct

stemming from an innate program

that is hard-wired in the human

brain, but says that it arose through

evolution and was therefore

adaptive, helping our ancestors to

survive. Chomsky disagrees with

Pinker about how language

Studies of how chimpanzees

communicate with each other

shows that their language is complex,

although it appears to have less content

and variation than human language.

298

AUTISM IS AN

EXTREME FORM OF

THE MALE BRAIN

SIMON BARON-COHEN (1958– )

influential theories is Simon Baron-

IN CONTEXT

A
utism is a disorder that

affects the brain’s normal

Cohen’s “theory of mind” hypothesis,

development of social and

which, when supported by his

APPROACH

communication skills. Autistic

observations about sex differences

Theory of mind

children often react to the world

in the brain, suggests that “autism

BEFORE

around them in a way that seems

is an extreme form of the male brain.”

1943
American psychiatrist

bizarre to others. They may have

Leo Kanner identifies autism,

poor communication skills, and

Brain types

suggesting it is the result of

social interaction with autistic

In 2003, Baron-Cohen developed the

cold, unemotional parenting.

children tends to be challenging,

empathizing–systematizing theory

partly because many of them fail to

of “female” and “male” brains, which

1944
Austrian pediatrician

speak, and partly because many

assigns a particular “brain type” to

Hans Asperger describes

show little interest in others. The

every person, regardless of gender,

autism as “an extreme variant

majority of autistic children are

depending on ability to empathize or

of male intelligence.”

male, and most remain impaired

systematize. His research suggests

1979
British psychiatrists

throughout adulthood. Various

that the female brain is largely hard-

explanations for autism have been

wired for empathy, with females

Lorna Wing and Judith Gould

offered. One of the most recent and

usually showing more sympathy for

discover that there is a wide

others, and greater sensitivity to

spectrum of autistic disorders.

facial expressions and non-verbal

AFTER

communication. The male brain, by

1989
German-born

contrast, appears to be geared toward

psychologist Uta Frith states

understanding and building systems;

that autistic individuals tend

it is mostly interested in how things

The person with

to notice detail, rather than the

work, as well as their structure, and

the extreme female

broader aspects of situations.

organization. It is therefore often

brain would be

better at tasks requiring decoding

1997
UK psychologist Peter

‘system-blind.’

skills, such as map reading.

Mitchell argues Baron-Cohen’s

Simon Baron-Cohen

This does not mean, however,

“theory of mind” fails to explain

that there is a neat gender split.

the exceptional memory and

Baron-Cohen’s experiments showed

ability in specific areas that

that around 17 percent of men

some autistic people possess.

appear to have an “empathizing

brain,” and 17 percent of women