The Root of Thought (25 page)

apoE gene, link with Alzheimer’s Disease,
125

APP,
139

Araque, Alfonso,
117

Aristophanes,
7

Aristotle,
6

aspartate,
56

astrocytes

as area between sensory processing and motor output,
38–40

astrocyte reaction,
127

astrocyte-to-neuron ratio

of Albert Einstein,
101–108

in psychiatric disorders,
115–116

calcium waves,
156

calcium as a cellular regulator,
43–46

calcium puffs,
49–51

calcium signaling,
47–52

curvilinear pattern of movement,
48–50

dreams as evidence of,
111–114

effect of marijuana on,
117–118

extracellular versus intracellular calcium,
46

internal calcium stores,
46

cortical gliogenesis in adults,
89–96

effect of alcohol on,
118

endfeet,
55

endoplasmic reticulum,
48

gap junctions,
47–48

glutamate-mediated astrocyte-neuron signaling

astrocyte influence on axon outgrowth,
62–63

glutamate concentration in astrocytes,
60

overview,
55–59

release of transmitters from astrocytes,
60–62

glutamate receptors,
56

Golgi complex,
48

growth

in adulthood,
71

in early childhood,
71

importance of,
155–158

as mediators between sensory experiences and motor action,
41

mitochondria,
48

neuronal signaling and,
34
,
38–40

nineteenth-century research into,
33–34

overview,
34

pre-and post-natal development,
65–66
,
69–71

reaction,
127

regenerative ability,
72–74
,
85–87

relationship between quantity of astrocytes and ability for complex thinking,
101–110

relationship with consciousness, creativity, and imagination,
156–158

response to closed head injury,
136–141

role in processing recreational drugs,
116–119

self-sufficient nature of,
39

astrocytomas,
147–148

ATP (Adenosine-5-triphosphate),
50

axons,
3

astrocyte influence on axon outgrowth,
62–63

cutting to reduce seizures,
25

myelin,
32

postnatal development,
70

Wallerian degeneration,
139

basal ganglia,
69
,
124

batteries, invention of,
19

bees, ratio of glia to neurons in,
35

Bergmann glia,
34

bipolar disorder,
115

birds

ability to learn to new songs,
85

ratio of glia to neurons in,
36

Bliss, Tim,
84

Bois-Reymond, Emile du,
21–22

Botox (botulinum neurotoxin A), ability to block astrocytic release of transmitters,
60

boxing,
136

brain injury

closed head injury

astrocytic response to,
136–141

definition of,
135

effect of protective helmets,
136

link to degenerative disease,
140

open head injury

primary injury,
134

secondary degeneration of brain cells,
135

overview,
133

research models,
140–141

brain tumors.
See
gliomas

BrdU (5-Bromodeoxyuridine),
90

Brightman, Milton,
47

Broca, Paul,
38

Broca’s area,
149

Byron, Lord George Gordon,
20

Caenorhabditis elegans, ratio of glia to neurons in,
2

caffeine,
116

Cajal, Santiago Ramón y,
9–13
,
22
,
138

calcium waves,
156

calcium as a cellular regulator,
43–46

calcium ion influx,
3

calcium puffs,
49–51

calcium signaling,
47–52

curvilinear pattern of movement,
48–50

dreams as evidence of,
111–114

effect of marijuana on,
117–118

extracellular versus intracellular calcium,
46

internal calcium stores,
46

cancer.
See
gliomas

Carlsson, Arvid,
123

Caton, Richard,
22

cellular regulation, role of calcium in,
43–45

cephalopods, ratio of glia to neurons in,
36

cerebrospinal fluid, ancient Roman beliefs about,
6

Charcot, Jean-Martin,
122

Charcot-Marie-Tooth syndrome,
122

chimpanzees, ratio of glia to neurons in,
2

cholesterol, synthesis by astrocytes,
62

Cicero,
86

clinical depression, reduced number of astrocytes in,
115

closed head injury

astrocytic response to,
136–141

definition of,
135

effect of protective helmets,
136

research models,
140–141

cocaine,
118

conduction of electricity.
See
electrophysiology

Confessions of an Opium-Eater
(Quincey),
118

Cornell-Bell, Ann H.,
47

corpus callosum,
81

cortex

angular gyrus,
104

Broca’s area,
149

cortical gliogenesis in adults,
89–97

cortical thinning process,
71–72

early research into,
25

left temporal cortex,
38

motor cortex,
38

parietal cortex,
38

visual cortex,
38
,
72

curvilinear pattern of calcium waves,
48–50

cytosol,
48

Darwin, Charles,
8

daydreaming,
114

Deep Brain Stimulation,
124

degenerative diseases of brain

Alzheimer’s Disease

identification of,
123

link with apoE gene,
125

protein deposits in neurons observed in,
124–125

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

identification of,
122

problems with glutamate transporters in,
126

astrocyte reaction in,
127

and inadequate turnover rate of glial cells,
127–130

link to brain injury,
140

Parkinson’s Disease

Deep Brain Stimulation,
124

identification of,
122

loss of substantia nigra in,
123

mutations in alpha-synuclein observed in,
125

related nature of degenerative diseases,
121–122

susceptibility to,
2–3

Deiters, Otto,
8
,
33

dementia,
108

depolarization of glia,
43

depression, reduced number of astrocytes in,
115

Descartes,
6–7

Deter, Auguste,
123

Diamond, Marian,
104

diffuse axonal injury.
See
closed head injury

Dissertation on the Sensible and Irritable Parts of Animals
(Franklin),
26

dopamine,
124

Down’s Syndrome

reduction in synaptogenesis in,
70

and synaptic complexity,
100

dreams

daydreaming,
114

EEGs (electroencephalographs) of brain activity during,
112

as evidence of sporadic calcium waves,
111–114

in other species,
114

overview,
111–112

recurring dreams,
113

relationship with experience,
113

Driving Mr. Albert: A Trip Across America with Einstein’s Brain
(Paterniti),
109

early childhood brain development,
71

Ebbinghaus, Hermann,
79
,
86

Eccles, John,
24

Eddington, Arthur Stanley,
103

Edison, Thomas,
17

EEGs (electroencephalographs) of dreams,
112

Einstein, Albert,
2

astrocyte-to-neuron ratio,
101–108

fate of brain after death,
102–110

Einstein’s Brain (i),
106

electrical conductance.
See
electrophysiology

electroencephalographs (EEGs) of dreams,
112

electrophysiology

eighteenth-century research into,
16–17
,
26

medical use of electricity in ancient Rome,
15

ninteenth-century research into,
18–22

twentieth-century research into,
23–25

End of Days
,
106

endfeet,
55

endoplasmic reticulum,
48

ependymal cells,
32