The Undivided Past (50 page)

    1.
R. Knox,
The Races of Men: A Fragment
(London, 1850). The enlarged edition of 1862 is revealingly subtitled
A Philosophical Inquiry into the Influence of Race over the Destinies of Nations
. For Knox’s life and career, see I. Rae,
Knox: The Anatomist
(London, 1964); K. Stephen,
Robert Knox
(London, 1981). For Knox’s thought, see M. D. Biddiss, “The Politics of Anatomy: Dr. Robert Knox and Victorian Racism,”
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine
69 (1976): 245–50; E. Richards, “The ‘Moral Anatomy’ of Robert Knox: The Interplay Between Biological and Social Thought in Victorian Societal Thought,”
Journal of the History of Biology
22 (1989): 373–436; P. Mandler, “The Problem with Cultural History,”
Cultural and Social History
1 (2004): 96–103; Mandler,
The English National Character: The History of an Idea from Edmund Burke to Tony Blair
(London, 2006), pp. 40, 74.

    2.
R. Richardson,
Death, Dissection and the Destitute
(London, 1987), pp. 131–43.

    3.
Knox,
Races of Men
, p. v; G. L. Mosse,
Toward the Final Solution: A History of European Racism
(New York, 1978), pp. 67–70.

    4.
Knox,
Races of Men
, pp. 65–66, 245; Biddiss, “Politics of Anatomy,” p. 250.

    5.
R. Blake,
Disraeli
(London, 1966), pp. 201–5, 258–60; B. Disraeli,
Tancred,
or the New Crusade
(London, 1882 ed.), p. 149; Disraeli, speech of February 1, 1849, quoted in H. Odom, “Generalizations on Race in Nineteenth-Century Physical Anthropology,”
Isis
58 (1967): 9.

    6.
Mosse,
Toward the Final Solution
, pp. 51–58.

    7.
N. Painter,
The History of White People
(New York, 2010), pp. 182, 195.

    8.
I. Berlin,
Four Essays on Liberty
(London, 1969), p. 106; M. Biddiss, introduction to Biddiss, ed.,
Images of Race
(Leicester, 1970), p. 12.

    9.
Compare, for example, Mosse,
Toward the Final Solution
, pp. xi–xvi; G. M. Fredrickson,
Racism: A Short History
(Princeton, 2002), pp. 17–47.

  10.
D. Brion Davis,
The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture
(Ithaca, N.Y., 1966), pp. 70–72; Brion Davis,
Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World
(Oxford, 2006), pp. 40–47.

  11.
F. M. Snowden Jr.,
Blacks in Antiquity: Ethiopians in the Greco-Roman Experience
(Cambridge, Mass., 1970); Snowden,
Before Color Prejudice: The Ancient View of Blacks
(Cambridge, Mass., 1983); L. A. Thompson,
Romans and Blacks
(London, 1989); E. S. Gruen,
Rethinking the Other in Antiquity
(Princeton, 2011); I. Hannaford,
Race: The History of an Idea in the West
(Washington, D.C., 1996), pp. 17–85.

  12.
C. Kidd,
The Forging of Races: Race and Scripture in the Protestant Atlantic World, 1600–2000
(Cambridge, 2006), p. 3; Acts of the Apostles 17:26.

  13.
Quoted in Hannaford,
Race
, p. 96.

  14.
Quoted in N. Stepan,
The Idea of Race in Science: Great Britain, 1800–1960
(London, 1982), pp. 1–2.

  15.
Kidd,
Forging of Races
, pp. 25–26; Fredrickson,
Racism
, pp. 17–19, 26–28.

  16.
D. Abulafia,
The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean
(London, 2011), pp. 216–19, 477–83, 569–70; K. J. P. Lowe, “Introduction: The Black African Presence in Renaissance Europe,” in T. F. Earle and K. J. P. Lowe, eds.,
Black Africans in Renaissance Europe
(Cambridge, 2005), p. 2; K. J. P. Lowe, “Representing Africa: Ambassadors and Princes from Christian Africa to Renaissance Italy and Portugal, 1402–1606,”
Transactions of the Royal Historical Society
, 6th. ser., 17 (2007): 401–28; Painter,
White People
, pp. 34–39.

  17.
Fredrickson,
Racism
, pp. 18–22, 29–33, 43–45.

  18.
Ibid., p. 6.

  19.
J. Chaplin, “Race,” in D. Armitage and M. Braddick, eds.,
The British Atlantic World, 1500–1800
(Basingstoke, 2002), pp. 154–66; Kidd,
Forging of Races
, p. 54.

  20.
Fredrickson,
Racism
, p. 64.

  21.
D. Hume,
Essays, Moral, Political and Literary
(Indianapolis, 1987 ed.), pp. 208 fn, 629–30; Kidd,
Forging the Races
, pp. 93–94; Mosse,
Toward the Final Solution
,
p. 30; J. Israel,
Democratic Enlightenment: Philosophy, Revolution and Human Rights, 1750–1790
(Oxford, 2011), pp. 738–39.

  22.
C. Bolt,
Victorian Attitudes to Race
(London, 1971), p. 9; Stepan,
Idea of Race
, p. 29; Painter,
White People
, pp. 114–15; Israel,
Democratic Enlightenment
, pp. 250–53.

  23.
Mosse,
Toward the Final Solution
, p. 33.

  24.
Quoted in E. C. Eze, ed.,
Race and the Enlightenment: A Reader
(Cambridge, Mass., 1997), p. 13; Fredrickson,
Racism
, p. 56.

  25.
S. Peabody,
“There Are No Slaves in France”: The Political Culture of Race and Slavery in the Ancien Régime
(New York, 1996), p. 66.

  26.
Hannaford,
Race
, pp. 202–13; Painter,
White People
, pp. 72–90.

  27.
J. H. St. J. de Crèvecoeur,
Letters from an American Farmer
(New York, 1981 ed.), p. 69; E. Foner,
The Story of American Freedom
(New York, 1998), p. 39.

  28.
T. Jefferson,
Notes on the State of Virginia
(Chapel Hill, N.C., 1982 ed.), pp. 138–39; Chaplin, “Race,” p. 165.

  29.
Foner,
American Freedom
, p. 75; Fredrickson,
Racism
, pp. 80–81; J. H. Kettner,
The Development of American Citizenship, 1608–1870
(Chapel Hill, N.C., 1978), pp. 235–46; E. P. Hutchinson,
Legislative History of American Immigration Policy, 1798–1865
(Philadelphia, 1981), pp. 405–33.

  30.
Painter,
White People
, pp. 64–68; Mosse,
Toward the Final Solution
, pp. 21–25.

  31.
Bolt,
Victorian Attitudes to Race
, p. 15; Biddiss, introduction to
Images of Race
, p. 15; Painter,
White People
, pp. 190–94; S. J. Gould,
The Mismeasure of Man
, rev. ed. (New York, 1996), pp. 105–41.

  32.
Bolt,
Victorian Attitudes to Race
, p. 4; Mosse,
Toward the Final Solution
, pp. 70–71; P. Stock, “ ‘Almost a Separate Race’: Racial Thought and the Idea of Europe in British Encyclopedias and Histories, 1771–1830,”
Modern Intellectual History
8 (2011): 3–29; E. Barkan,
The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States Between the World Wars
(Cambridge, 1992), pp. 3–4.

  33.
Bolt,
Victorian Attitudes to Race
, p. xi; Biddiss, introduction to
Images of Race
, pp. 11, 16; Painter,
White People
, pp. 213–14; Mosse,
Toward the Final Solution
, pp. 121–22; J. Darwin,
After Tamerlane: The Global History of Empire Since 1405
(London, 2007), p. 348.

  34.
Mosse,
Toward the Final Solution
, pp. 32–33.

  35.
Ibid., pp. 11, 17–20, 30; Biddiss, introduction to
Images of Race
, p. 15.

  36.
Kidd,
Forging of Races
, pp. 7–8; Painter,
White People
, pp. 195–98; Fredrickson,
Racism
, p. 57.

  37.
Painter,
White People
, pp. 195–98; Bolt,
Victorian Attitudes to Race
, pp. xii, 10, 23.

  38.
Fredrickson,
Racism
, pp. 8, 70–71; Mosse,
Toward the Final Solution
, pp. 36–41, 102.

  39.
D. Pick,
Faces of Degeneration: A European Disorder, c. 1848–c. 1918
(Cambridge, 1989), pp. 11–27.

  40.
Mosse,
Toward the Final Solution
, pp. 54–55.

  41.
Barkan,
Retreat of Scientific Racism
, pp. 17–18; Biddiss, introduction to
Images of Race
, pp. 18–20.

  42.
R. Hyam,
Understanding the British Empire
(Cambridge, 2010), pp. 25–26, 161–68; Brion Davis,
Inhuman Bondage
, p. 239; L. Colley,
Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707–1837
(2nd. ed., London, 2005), pp. 354–55.

  43.
Brion Davis,
Inhuman Bondage
, pp. 252–53; Foner,
American Freedom
, p. 88.

  44.
Brion Davis,
Inhuman Bondage
, pp. 238–39.

  45.
Foner,
American Freedom
, pp. 89, 98, 105–7.

  46.
M. Lake and H. Reynolds,
Drawing the Global Colour Line: White Men’s Countries and the International Challenge of Racial Equality
(Cambridge, 2008), pp. 50–53, 59–60, 89–90; T. Koditschek,
Liberalism, Imperialism, and the Historical Imagination: Nineteenth-Century Visions of a Greater Britain
(Cambridge, 2011), pp. 240–50.

  47.
Lake and Reynolds,
Global Colour Line
, pp. 11, 72–74, 95–113; J. Bryce,
The Relations of the Advanced and the Backward Races of Mankind
(Oxford, 1902), passim; D. Bell,
The Idea of Greater Britain: Empire and the Future of World Order, 1860–1900
(Princeton, 2007), pp. 7–9; J. Darwin,
The Empire Project: The Rise and Fall of the British World-System, 1830–1970
(Cambridge, 2009), p. 147; P. Ziegler,
Legacy: Cecil Rhodes, The Rhodes Trust and Rhodes Scholarships
(London, 2008), pp. 13–14.

  48.
D. Gilmour,
The Long Recessional: The Imperial Life of Rudyard Kipling
(London, 2002), pp. 126–32; Fredrickson,
Racism
, pp. 107–8.

  49.
Foner,
American Freedom
, p. 186; Lake and Reynolds,
Global Colour Line
, pp. 95–113; T. G. Dyer,
Theodore Roosevelt and the Idea of Race
(Baton Rouge, 1980), pp. 16–19, 70–80, 100–109.

  50.
Painter,
White People
, pp. 201–56, 289–308; Foner,
American Freedom
, p. 187; J. Stein, “Defining the Race, 1890–1930,” in W. Sollors, ed.,
The Invention of Ethnicity
(New York, 1989), pp. 70–80.

  51.
Mosse,
Toward the Final Solution
, pp. 99–101, 120, 148–9, 165–66; Fredrickson,
Racism
, pp. 72–78.

  52.
Mosse,
Toward the Final Solution
, pp. 105–10; Hannaford,
Race
, pp. 348–56; Painter,
White People
, pp. 311–16; Fredrickson,
Racism
, pp. 89–91.

  53.
B. Perkins,
The Grand Rapprochement: England and the United States, 1895–1914
(New York, 1968); S. Anderson,
Race and Rapprochement:
Anglo-Saxonism and Anglo-American Relations, 1895–1904
(Madison, N.J., 1981); P. A. Kramer, “Empires, Exceptions, and Anglo-Saxons: Race and Rule Between the British and United States Empires,”
Journal of American History
88 (2002): 1315–53; P. Clarke, “The English-Speaking Peoples Before Churchill,”
Britain and the World
4 (2011): 199–231.

  54.
Ziegler,
Legacy
, pp. 8, 13, 17.

  55.
J. P. Greene, “Introduction: Empire and Liberty,” in Greene, ed.,
Exclusionary Empire: English Liberty Overseas, 1600–1900
(Cambridge, 2010), p. 24.

  56.
Fredrickson,
Racism
, pp. 9–10.

  57.
Hyam,
Understanding the British Empire
, p. 30.

  58.
Ibid., p. 223.

  59.
G. M. Fredrickson,
White Supremacy: A Comparative Study in American and South African History
(Oxford, 1981), pp. 239–44; Lake and Reynolds,
Global Colour Line
, pp. 155, 222–37; Hyam,
Understanding the British Empire
, pp. 351, 359 n. 24; C. Saunders, “The Expansion of British Liberties: The South African Case,” in Greene,
Exclusionary Empire
, p. 285.

  60.
Lake and Reynolds,
Global Colour Line
, pp. 30–45; Darwin,
Empire Project
, pp. 162–64, 167.

  61.
Lake and Reynolds,
Global Colour Line
, pp. 137–65, 178–79, 315; J. Stenhouse and B. Moloughney, “ ‘Drug-Besotted Sin-Begotten Sons of Filth’; New Zealanders and the Oriental Other,”
New Zealand Journal of History
33 (1999): 43–64.

  62.
Lake and Reynolds,
Global Colour Line
, pp. 139–40.

  63.
Ibid., pp. 114–19; M. K. Gandhi,
An Autobiography
(London, 2001 ed.), pp. 114, 160.

  64.
Fredrickson,
Racism
, pp. 102, 112–13; H. Bley,
South-West Africa Under German Rule, 1894–1914
(Evanston, Ill., 1971), pp. 163–64, 207, 212–13.

  65.
Foner,
American Freedom
, pp. 131–33; C. Vann Woodward,
Origins of the New South, 1877–1913
(Baton Rouge, 1951); Woodward,
The Strange Career of Jim Crow
(New York, 3rd ed., 1974); M. Perman,
Struggle for Mastery: Disenfranchisement in the South, 1888–1908
(Chapel Hill, N.C., 2001).

  66.
Fredrickson,
Racism
, pp. 82–83.

  67.
J. Williamson,
The Crucible of Race: Black-White Relations in the American South Since Emancipation
(New York, 1984), pp. 111–223; L. F. Litwack,
Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow
(New York, 1998), pp. 117–18, 185.