The Village Effect: How Face-to-Face Contact Can Make Us Healthier and Happier (56 page)

10.
Sheldon Cohen, “Social Relationships and Susceptibility to the Common Cold,” in
Emotion, Social Relationships, and Health
, ed. Carol D. Ryff and M. Burton (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001); Sheldon Cohen and Denise Janicki-Deverts, “Can We Improve Our Physical Health by Altering Our Social Networks?”
Perspectives on Psychological Science
4, no. 4 (2009).

11.
Cohen and Janicki-Deverts, “Can We Improve Our Physical Health”; L. F. Berkman, “Tracking Social and Biological Experiences: The Social Etiology of Cardiovascular Disease,”
Circulation
111, no. 23 (2005); L. F. Berkman et al., “From Social Integration to Health: Durkheim in the New Millennium,”
Social Science and Medicine
51, no. 6 (2000); T. E. Seeman, “Social Ties and Health: The Benefits of Social Integration,”
Annals of Epidemiology
6, no. 5 (1996); T. Seeman, “How Do Others Get under Our Skin? Social Relationships and Health,” in
Emotion, Social Relationships and Health
, ed. Carol D. Ryff and Burton H. Singer (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001).

12.
R. J. Sampson, “When Disaster Strikes, It’s Survival of the Sociable,”
New Scientist
, May 17, 2013; Eric Klinenberg,
Heat Wave: A Social Autopsy of
Disaster in Chicago
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002); Daniel P. Aldrich, “The Power of People: Social Capital’s Role in Recovery from the 1995 Kobe Earthquake,”
Natural Hazards
56 (2011).

13.
K. M. Stavraky et al., “The Effect of Psychosocial Factors on Lung Cancer Mortality at One Year,”
Journal of Clinical Epidemiology
41, no. 1 (1988); Cohen, “Social Relationships and Susceptibility to the Common Cold.”

14.
V.P. Goby, “Personality and Online/Offline Choices,”
CyberPsychology and Behavior
9 (2006); Q. Tian, “Social Anxiety, Motivation, Self-Disclosure, and Computer-Mediated Friendship,”
Communication Research
40, no. 2 (2013).

15.
Micah O. Mazurek, “Social Media Use among Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders,”
Computers in Human Behavior
29 (2013).

16.
Human Resources and Skills Development Canada, “Indicators of Well-being in Canada: School Drop-Outs,” Employment and Social Development Canada, 2013,
http://www4.hrsdc.gc.ca/[email protected]?iid=32
; Patrice de Broucker,
Without a Paddle: What to Do about Canada’s Young Dropouts
(Ottawa: Canadian Policy Research Networks, 2005).

17.
Sarah-Maude Lefebvre, “Quebec Hides Dropout Numbers,”
Canoe.ca
, 2012,
http://www.cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2012/02/20/19402596.html
.

18.
Kate Hammer, “Winning Back Dropouts with a Simple Call,”
Globe and Mail
, May 31, 2012.

19.
UNICEF
, “Basic Education and Gender Equality: The Big Picture,” February 6, 2014,
http://www.unicef.org/education/index_bigpicture.html
.

20.
Dana Burde and Leigh Linden, “The Effect of Village-Based Schools: Evidence from a Randomized Controlled Trial in Afghanistan,” NBER Working Paper 18039 (Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2012); Dana Burde and Leigh Linden, “Bringing Education to Afghan Girls: A Randomized Controlled Trial of Village-Based Schools,”
Applied Economics
5, no. 3 (2013).

21.
Though I review the evidence in more detail in Chapters 6 and 7, a comparison of effects for two meta-analyses—the first of interactive book reading to stimulate literacy, the second on literacy and academic outcomes from nine one-to-one laptop programs—showed effect sizes (d) ranging from 0.36 to 0.72 in the interaction study and 0.17 to 0.28 in the laptop study. Suzanne Mol, Adriana G. Bus, and Maria T. de Jong, “Interactive Book Reading in Early Education: A Tool to Stimulate Print Knowledge as Well as Oral Language,”
Review of Educational Research
79, no. 2 (2009); Binbin Zheng and Mark Warschauer, “Teaching and Learning in One-to-One Laptop Environments: A Research Synthesis,” paper presented at annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, 2013.

For more evidence on the benefits of parent and teacher training, see Alan Mendelsohn et al., “The Impact of a Clinic Based Literacy Intervention on Language Development in Inner-City Preschool Children,”
Pediatrics
107, no. 1 (2001); Alan Mendelsohn et al., “Do Verbal Interactions with Infants during Electronic Media Exposure Mitigate Adverse Impacts on Their Language Development as Toddlers?”
Infant and Child Development
19 (2010); Alan Mendelsohn et al., “Primary Care Strategies for Promoting Parent–Child Interactions and School Readiness in At-Risk Families,”
Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine
165, no. 1 (2011).

22.
Raj Chetty, John N. Friedman, and Jonah Rockoff, “The Long-Term Impacts of Teachers: Teacher Value-Added and Student Outcomes in Adulthood,” NBER Working Paper 17699 (Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2012).

23.
There are a few exceptions. A laptop program designed to improve the writing skills of a thousand fifth-graders in Colorado made no difference to the group as a whole: after a year of a one-to-one laptop program taught by trained teachers, the students’ writing skills were the same as they would have been without the digital technology. But when black and Hispanic students were separated out of the mix, the researchers saw some slight gains for that group. Zheng and
Warschauer, “Teaching and Learning in One-to-One Laptop Environments.”

24.
Ibid.; Mark Warschauer,
Learning in the Cloud
(New York: Teacher’s College Press, 2011).

25.
Adele Diamond and Kathleen Lee, “Interventions Shown to Aid Executive Function Development in Children 4 to 12 Years Old,”
Science
333 (2011).

26.
Barack Obama,
The Audacity of Hope
(New York: Vintage, 2006).

27.
Chetty, Friedman, and Rockoff, “The Long-Term Impacts of Teachers.”

28.
Nicholas D. Kristof, “How Mrs. Grady Transformed Olly Neal,”
New York Times
, January 22, 2012.

29.
Robert D. Putnam, “Requiem for the American Dream? Unequal Opportunity in America,” lecture presented at the Aspen Ideas Festival, Aspen, CO, June 29, 2012; David Brooks, “The Opportunity Gap,”
New York Times
, July 9, 2012; Margaret Wente, “The Long Climb from Inequality,”
Globe and Mail
, July 14, 2012; Sean F. Reardon, “No Rich Child Left Behind,”
New York Times
, April 28, 2013; Sean F. Riordan, “The Widening Academic Achievement Gap between the Rich and the Poor: New Evidence and Possible Explanations,” in
Whither Opportunity? Rising Inequality and the Uncertain Life Chances of Low-Income Children
, ed. R. Murnane and G. Duncan (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2011).

30.
Rachelle DeJong, “Why Do Students Drop Out of MOOCs?” Minding the Campus, November 10, 2013,
http://www.mindingthecampus.com/originals/2013/11/why_do_students_drop_out_of_mo.html
; Ezekiel J. Emanuel, “Online Education: MOOCs Taken by Educated Few,”
Nature
503, no. 342 (2013).

31.
Matt Richtel, “A Silicon Valley School that Doesn’t Compute,”
New York Times
, October 22, 2011.

32.
Jacob L. Vigdor and Helen F. Ladd, “Scaling the Digital Divide: Home Computer Technology and Student Achievement,” NBER Working Paper 16078 (Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2010).

33.
Warschauer,
Learning in the Cloud
, 96–97.

34.
United States Census Bureau. “State and County Quick Facts: Miami-Dade County, Florida,” 2012,
http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/12/12086.html
(accessed June 1, 2013).

35.
Kwame Anthony Appiah, “The Art of Social Change,”
New York Times
, October 22, 2010; Kwame Anthony Appiah,
The Honor Code: How Moral Revolutions Happen
(New York: Norton, 2010).

36.
During a field trial lasting ten years, women visiting new mothers in rural India reduced infant deaths by 70% (in comparison with matched control villages). Abhay T. Bang et al., “Neonatal and Infant Mortality in the Ten Years (1993 to 2003) of the Gadchiroli Field Trial: Effect of Home-Based Neonatal Care,”
Journal of Perinatology
25, no. S1 (2005): S92–S107. In Youndé, Cameroon, women belonging to voluntary associations called
tontines—which
are social networks of a sort—are more likely to use condoms and encourage their use among their close friends. T. W. Valente et al., “Social Network Associations with Contraceptive Use among Cameroonian Women in Voluntary Associations,”
Social Science and Medicine
45, no. 5 (1997); Ann Swidler, “Responding to
AIDS
in Sub-Saharan Africa,” in
Successful Societies: How Institutions and Culture Affect Health
, ed. Peter Hall and Michèle Lamont (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009).

37.
A small but clever study shows that people who are accompanied by a friend estimate a hill to be less steep compared to people assessing the same terrain who are alone. S. Schnall et al., “Social Support and the Perception of Geographical Slant,”
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
44, no. 5 (2008); Catherine T. Shea, Erin K. Davisson, and Grainne Fitzsiomons, “Riding Other People’s Coattails: Individuals with Low Self-Control Value Self-Control in Other People,”
Psychological Science
24, no. 5 (2013).

itr.1
Photograph courtesy of the author

itr.2
Author’s sociogram by Yanick Charette

1.1
Photograph of YMCA Masters’ team at Canadian National Championships courtesy of Robin Berlyn

1.2
Isolated and group-living rats from Figure B, in Martha K. McClintock, Suzanne D. Conzen, Sarah Gehlert, et al., 2005. “Mammary Cancer and Social Interactions: Identifying Multiple Environments that Regulate Gene Expression Throughout the Life Span,”
Journals of Gerontology
Series B, 60B,
this page
. Reprinted with the permission of Sarah Gehlert.

1.3
Sylvie La Fontaine’s sociogram by Yanick Charette

1.4
John McColgan’s sociogram by Yanick Charette

2.1
Bronzetti from left to right: Traveller with staff, and praying woman: reprinted with the permission of Scala/White Images/Art Resource, NY. Priest with conical hat, photograph by Gianni Dagli Orti, reprinted with the permission of The Art Archive at Art Resource

2.2
Photograph courtesy of the author

2.3
Graph adapted from Figure 6, in Julianne Holt-Lunstad, Timothy Smith, and J. Bradley Layton, 2010. “Social Relationships and Mortality Risk: A Meta-analytic Review,”
PLoS Medicine
, 7 (7), p. 14. Reprinted with the permission of Julianne Holt-Lunstad.

2.4
Photograph courtesy of Giovanni Pes

3.1
Photograph of “Tuke” at Kibale Park courtesy of Jessica Hartel

4.1
John McColgan’s second degree sociogram by Yanick Charette

4.2
“Figure of the Week,” Amstettner Anzeiger, April 18, 1943. From the University of Vienna Library. In Volkhard Knigge et al,
Forced
Labor: The Germans, The Forced Laborers, and the War
. Weimar 2010. Reprinted with the permission of the Jewish Museum of Berlin

4.3
Photograph courtesy of Jennifer Levett

5.1
‘Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates.’ From A. N. Meltzoff & M. K. Moore,
Science
, 1977. Reprinted with the permission of Andrew Meltzoff and The American Association for the Advancement of Science.

5.2
Photograph courtesy of the author.

6.1
“She thinks it’s a touchscreen,” Copyright Emily Flake, reprinted with the permission of The New Yorker Collection/The Cartoon Bank.

6.2
Photograph courtesy of Daniel Olguín Olguín, who is pictured wearing the sociometric badge.

8.1
Images of Amy Taylor, David Pollard and their avatars reprinted with the permission of SWNS.

9.1
Facial array adapted from Figure 3, in Alexander Todorov and Nikolaas N. Oosterhof, 2011. “Modeling Social Perception in Faces.”
IEEE Signal Processing Magazine
, p.121. Reprinted with the permission of Alexander Todorov

9.2
Photograph of Salah Ezzedine reprinted with the permission of the European Pressphoto Agency. Photograph of Earl Jones courtesy of Ginny Nelles