Three for a Letter (28 page)

Glossary

AESCHYLUS (c 525-c 456 BC)

Greek playwright regarded as the father of Greek tragedies. He wrote dozens of plays of which only a handful are extant, including
Agamemnon
(458 BC), considered by many to be the greatest surviving Greek drama.

AGAMEMNON

See AESCHYLUS.

AMALASUNTHA (498-535)

Daughter of THEODORIC and mother of MATASUNTHA and ATHALARIC. She served as regent for ATHALARIC when he became king of the OSTROGOTHS while still a child. Like her father, she supported Roman culture and maintained friendly ties with the Eastern Roman Empire. Following ATHALARIC’s death in 534 she was unable to maintain her position in the face of opposition to her policies and was murdered in 535.

APOLLO’S RAVEN

According to Greek legend, Coronis was unfaithful to the god Apollo while she was carrying his child. A raven informed Apollo, who killed Coronis although he saved their unborn son. Until then ravens had had white plumage but in his rage Apollo scorched the bird who had told him of Coronis’ infidelity and thereafter ravens had black feathers.

ARIANISM

Christian heresy originating in the fourth century, holding that Christ was not divine but rather a created being. Although proscribed, the belief persisted until the seventh century among certain Germanic peoples, including the OSTROGOTHS.

ATHALARIC (c 516-534)

Grandson of THEODORIC, son of AMALASUNTHA and brother of MATASUNTHA. Shortly before his death in 526, THEODORIC named Athalaric heir to the OSTROGOTH throne with AMALASUNTHA to serve as regent while he was still a child. He died in 534, the year before his mother was murdered.

ATHENAEUS (known c 200)

Greek grammarian born in Egypt whose
Deipnosophistae
(
Banquet of the Learned
) is his only extant work. Written in fifteen volumes, ten of which have survived intact and the remaining five in summarized form, it quotes extracts from several hundred writers, including many whose works are otherwise lost.

AUGEAN STABLES

According to Greek mythology, the stables belonging to King Augeas were so filthy that Hercules could only accomplish the task of cleansing them in one day by diverting the raging waters of two rivers through them.

BATHS OF ZEUXIPPOS

Public baths in Constantinople. They were named after a Thracian deity whose name combines Zeus and Hippos. Erected by order of Septimius Severus (146-211; r 193-211), they were rebuilt after the Nika Riots (532) by order of JUSTINIAN I. Situated to the northeast of the HIPPODROME, they were generally considered the most luxurious of the city’s public baths and were famous for their classical statues, numbering between sixty and eighty.

BELISARIUS (c 505-565)

JUSTINIAN I’s most trusted general. His exploits included retaking northern Africa and Italy.

CASSIODORUS (490-c 585)

Roman statesman, historian, and, in later life, monk who helped preserve the culture of Rome while serving under the OSTROGOTH kings in Italy. His writings include a twelve-volume
Gothic History
, of which there survives only a mid sixth century abridgement written by the Gothic historian Jordanes.

CICERO (106-43 BC)

Roman statesman, lawyer, and writer who was famous for his powerful orations.

CONCRETE

Roman concrete, consisting of wet lime, volcanic ash and pieces of rock, was used in a large range of structures from humble cisterns to the Pantheon in Rome, which has survived for nearly 2,000 years without the steel reinforcing rods commonly used in modern concrete buildings. One of the oldest Roman concrete buildings still standing is the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli, Italy, built during the first century BC.

CYBELE

Phrygian Mother Goddess represented by a sacred black rock, possibly a meteorite. Her son and lover Attis died but was resurrected. Roman rites associated with Cybele included the felling of a pine tree symbolizing Attis. Cybele was sometimes shown riding a lion or in a chariot pulled by a team of these animals. Her priests were castrated.

DALMATIC

Loose overgarment worn by the Byzantine upper classes.

DAPHNE PALACE

Main building of the GREAT PALACE. Nothing is known about its appearance.

ENNEADS

Written by Plotinus (c 204-270), an Egyptian philosopher who in 244 moved to Rome. His works were edited by his student Porphyry (234-305) into six sets of nine books under the general title of
The Enneads
(from ennea, nine).

EUNUCH

Eunuchs played an important part in the military, ecclesiastical and civil administrations of the Byzantine Empire. Many high offices in the GREAT PALACE were typically held by eunuchs.

EXCUBITORS

The GREAT PALACE guard.

FALERNIAN WINE

Considered one of the finest Roman wines.

GADARENE SWINE

Large herd of swine into which Christ drove numerous unclean spirits that had possessed a man.

GREAT CHURCH

Popular name for Constantinople’s Church of the Holy Wisdom (HAGIA SOPHIA). One of the world’s great architectural achievements, the Hagia Sophia was rebuilt by order of JUSTINIAN I to replace the church burnt down during the Nika Riots (532). Completed in 537, the structure is most notable for its immense central dome, which is about a hundred feet in diameter.

GREAT PALACE

Lay in the southeastern part of Constantinople. It was not one building but many, set amidst trees and gardens. Its grounds included the DAPHNE PALACE, barracks for the EXCUBITORS, ceremonial rooms, meeting halls, the imperial family’s living quarters, churches and housing provided for court officials, ambassadors and various other dignitaries.

HAGIA SOPHIA

See GREAT CHURCH.

HERO OF ALEXANDRIA (1st century AD)

Egyptian mathematician and inventor, whose writings included works on surveying, water clocks, geometry and engineering. His PNEUMATICS describes how to construct useful, unusual, or amusing devices such as musical instruments played by air or water, a solar-operated fountain, a self-trimming lamp and automatic wine dispensers. He is also known as Heron of Alexandria.

HIPPODROME

U-shaped race track in Constantinople. The Hippodrome had tiered seating accommodating up to a hundred thousand spectators. It was also used for public celebrations and other civic events.

IMPLUVIUM

Shallow pool in the center of the atrium of a Roman house. Situated under the compluvium (a square or oblong opening in the atrium roof) the impluvium caught rainwater for household use or decorative purposes.

JUSTINIAN I (483-565; r 527-565)

Justinian I’s greatest ambition was to restore the Roman Empire to its former glory. He succeeded in temporarily regaining North Africa, Italy and southeastern Spain. He ordered the codification of Roman law and after the Nika Riots (532) rebuilt the Church of the Holy Wisdom (see GREAT CHURCH) as well as many other buildings in Constantinople. He was married to THEODORA.

LEO I (c 401-474; r 457-474)

Leo I followed a military career, reaching the rank of tribune before being acclaimed emperor after the death of Emperor Marcian (396-457; r 450-457).

LORD CHAMBERLAIN

Typically a EUNUCH, the Lord (or Grand) Chamberlain was the chief attendant to the emperor and supervised most of those serving at Constantinople’s GREAT PALACE. He also took a leading role in court ceremonial but his real power arose from his close working relationship with the emperor, which allowed him to wield great influence.

MARTIAL (?38-c 103)

Epigrammatist who was born in Spain and moved to Rome. He wrote twelve books of epigrams, many satirical in nature and often containing cutting observations on contemporary society.

MASTER OF THE OFFICES

Official who oversaw the civil side of imperial administration within the GREAT PALACE.

MATASUNTHA (known c 530s)

Grand-daughter of THEODORIC, daughter of AMALASUNTHA and sister of ATHALARIC. She was married to WITIGIS, with whom she was taken to Constantinople after the fall of Ravenna. She later married Germanus, JUSTINIAN I’s cousin.

MESE

Main thoroughfare of Constantinople. Enriched with columns, arches, statuary (depicting secular, military, imperial, and religious subjects), fountains, religious establishments, workshops, monuments, public baths and private dwellings, it was a perfect mirror of the heavily populated and densely built city it traversed.

MIMES

After the second century AD mime supplanted classical Roman pantomime in popularity. Unlike performers of pantomime, mimes spoke and did not wear masks. Their performances featured extreme violence and graphic licentiousness and were strongly condemned by the Christian church.

MITHRA

Persian sun god. He was born in a cave or from a rock and slew the Great (or Cosmic) Bull, from whose blood all animal and vegetable life of the world sprang. He is usually depicted wearing a tunic and Phrygian cap with his cloak flying out behind him and in the act of slaying the Great Bull. He was also known as Mithras. See also MITHRAEUM, MITHRAISM and MITHRA’S TORCH BEARERS.

MITHRAEUM

Underground place of worship dedicated to MITHRA. They have been found on sites as far apart as northern England and what was later the Holy Land.

MITHRAISM

Of Persian origin, Mithraism spread throughout the Roman empire via its followers in various branches of the military. It became one of the most popular Roman religions during the second and third centuries AD but declined after Emperor Constantine’s conversion to Christianity. Mithrans were required to practice chastity, obedience and loyalty. Parallels have been drawn between Mithraism and Christianity because of shared practices such as baptism and a belief in resurrection as well as the fact that his followers believed that MITHRA, in common with many sun gods, was born on December 25th. However, women were excluded from Mithraism.

Mithrans advanced within their religion through seven degrees. In ascending order, these were Corax (Raven), Nymphus (Male Bride), Miles (Soldier), Leo (Lion), Peres (Persian), Heliodromus (RUNNER OF THE SUN), and Pater (Father).

MITHRA’S TORCH BEARERS

Representations of MITHRA show him accompanied by the twin torchbearers Cautes and Cautopates, statues of whom were also part of the sacred furnishings of a MITHRAEUM. Cautes always held his torch upright while Cautopates pointed his down. The twins are said to represent the rising and setting of the sun. Another interpretation is that they symbolize the twin emotions of despair and hope.

MONOPHYSITES

Adherents to a doctrine holding that Christ had only one nature (a composite of the divine and the human) rather than two that were separate within him. Although condemned by the fourth ecumenical council in Chalcedon (451) it nevertheless remained particularly strong in Syria and Egypt during the reign of JUSTINIAN I. THEODORA championed the Monophysite cause.

NOMISMATA

Plural form of nomisma, the standard gold coin at the time of JUSTINIAN I. See also SEMISSIS.

OSTROGOTHS

Germanic people that, along with the related Visigoths, was at war with the Roman Empire for centuries. Under THEODORIC the Ostrogoths established a kingdom in Italy towards the end of the fifth century. During the latter part of their existence the Ostrogoths converted to ARIANISM. By the mid-sixth century, as a result of JUSTINIAN I’s campaign to reconquer Italy, they had ceased to have a national identity.

OVID (43 BC-17 AD)

Best known for his erotic verse, Ovid was the author of the
Art of Love
and also of
The Metamorphoses
, a mythological-historical collection in fifteen books.

PATRIARCH

Head of a diocese or patriarchate. At the time of JUSTINIAN I these were (ranked by precedence) Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem.

PNEUMATICS

See HERO OF ALEXANDRIA.

POLUS (4th century BC)

Greek actor famed for his performance in Sophocles’
Electra
, during which he carried an urn containing the ashes of his recently deceased son on stage in order to enhance his enactment of grief.

PORPHYRIO

Whale that, according to the sixth century Byzantine historian Procopius, inhabited the seas around Constantinople for more than half a century.

QUAESTOR

Public official who administered financial and legal matters in addition to drafting laws.

RUNNER OF THE SUN

One of the highest degrees in MITHRAISM.

SEMISSIS

Coin worth half a nomisma (see NOMISMATA).

SETESH

Egyptian god epitomizing evil. He was also known as Set or Setekh.

SILENTIARY

Court official whose duties were similar to those of an usher and included guarding the room in which an imperial audience or meeting was being held.

STADIA (singular: STADE or STADIUM)

Ancient Greek measure of distance. As adopted by the Romans a stade equaled 606 feet 9 inches, the length of a foot race at the Olympic Games.

SULLA (138-78 BC)

Roman politician, appointed dictator in 82 BC following a civil war.

THEODORA (c 497-548)

Influential wife of JUSTINIAN I. It has been alleged that she had formerly been an actress and a prostitute. When the Nika Riots broke out in Constantinople in 532, she is said to have urged her husband to remain in the city, thus saving his throne.

THEODORIC (454-526; r OSTROGOTHS 47l-526; r Italy 493-526)

Known as Theodoric the Great, he was educated in Constantinople, having been taken there as a diplomatic hostage at the age of eight. Ascending to the OSTROGOTH throne on the death of his father Theodemir in 471, he eventually regained control of Italy from the barbarians who had won it from Rome almost twenty years before. During his reign he favored Roman methods of government and law. As an OSTROGOTH he practiced ARIANISM.

VITRUVIUS (1st century BC)

Roman architect, engineer and author of the ten-volume treatise
De Architectura
(
On Architecture
), the only surviving Roman work on the topic.