Undocumented : How Immigration Became Illegal (9780807001684) (32 page)

53.
See Alfredo Blumstein and Allen J. Beck, “Population Growth in US Prisons, 1980–1996,”
Crime and Justice
26 (1999). Incarceration rates for immigration offenses rose from 0.6 per 100,000 in 1980 to 2.7 per 100,000 in 1996, an increase of 350 percent (45–46). For federal commitment rates for convicted offenders, “the largest upward trend is for immigration offenses, which had a fairly steady growth in commitment rate from 46 percent to 82 percent” (48).

54.
Kirkham, “Private Prisons Profit.”

55.
Llewellyn Hinkes-Jones, “Privatized Prisons: A Human Marketplace,”
Los Angeles Review of Books
, January 10, 2013.

56.
“Incarceration, Inc.,”
Phoenix Magazine
, March, 2012,
http://www.phoenixmag.com/lifestyle/valley-news/201203/incarceration—inc-/1/
.

57.
Associated Press, “Private Prison Companies Making Big Bucks on Locking Up Undocumented Immigrants,”
New York Daily News
, August 2, 2012,
http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/private-prison-companies-making-big-bucks-locking-undocumented-immigrants-article-1.1127465#ixzz2PQbUHM9a
.

58.
The Geo Group,
http://www.geogroup.com/;
Management & Training Corporation,
http://www.mtctrains.com/corrections/corrections-overview
.

59.
Corrections Corporation of America,
http://www.cca.com/about/
.

60.
Justice Policy Institute, “Gaming the System: How the Political Strategies of Private Prison Companies Promote Ineffective Incarceration Policies,” June 2011, 12,
http://www.justicepolicy.org/uploads/justicepolicy/documents/gaming_the_system.pdf
.

61.
“Incarceration, Inc.” In the last decade, the CCA spent $23 million in lobbying. See Kirkham, “Private Prisons Profit.”

62.
US Securities and Exchange Commission, Corrections Corporation of America, Form 10K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2005, cited in Michelle Alexander,
The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness
(New York: New Press, 2010),218–19. The company’s 2010 Annual Report used virtually identical language. See excerpt from the report in Justice Policy Institute, “Gaming the System,” 3. The reports themselves are online at
http://ir.correctionscorp.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=117983&p=irol-reportsannual
.

63.
Laura Sullivan, “Prison Economics Help Drive Ariz. Immigration Law,” National Public Radio, October 28, 2010,
http://www.npr.org/2010/10/28/130833741/prison-economics-help-drive-ariz-immigration-law
.

64.
Justice Policy Institute, “Gaming the System,” 3.

65.
Sullivan, “Prison Economics Help Drive Ariz. Immigration Law.”

66.
Laura Sullivan, “Shaping State Laws with Little Scrutiny,” National Public Radio, October 29, 2010,
http://www.npr.org/2010/10/29/130891396/shaping-state-laws-with-little-scrutiny
.

67.
Ibid.

68.
Sullivan, “Prison Economics Help Drive Ariz. Immigration Law.”

69.
Ibid.

70.
Ibid.

71.
Kirkham, “Private Prisons Profit.”

72.
Ibid.

73.
Ibid.

74.
Hannah Rappleye and Lisa Riordan Seville, “How One Georgia Town Gambled Its Future on Immigration Detention,”
Nation
, April 10, 2012.

CHAPTER 5: WORKING (PART 1)

1.
WGP/TRO-© Copyright 1961 (Renewed), 1963 (Renewed) Woody Guthrie Publications, Inc. & Ludlow Music, Inc., New York, NY. Administered by Ludlow Music, Inc. Used by Permission.

2.
Jeffrey Passel,
Size and Characteristics of the Unauthorized Migrant Population in the US
, Pew Research Hispanic Center, March 7, 2006, part IV, “Unauthorized Migrants: The Workforce,”
http://www.pewhispanic.org/2006/03/07/iv-unauthorized-migrants-the-workforce/
.

3.
Robert Pear, “Judge’s Hiring of Illegal Alien in 1980s Did Not Violate Immigration Law,”
New York Times
, February 6, 1993.

4.
William R. Tamayo, “Immigration and the Civil Rights Movement,” in
Double Exposure: Poverty and Race in America
, ed. Chester W. Hartman (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), 115.

5.
Charles B. Johnson, president of the Pasadena branch, quoted in Hector Tobar, “NAACP Calls for End to Employer Sanctions,”
Los Angeles Times
, July 12, 1990.

6.
See Edward R. Roybal, “If You Look ‘Foreign,’ It’s ‘No Help Wanted,’”
Los Angeles Times
, April 15, 1990; Tobar, “NAACP Calls for End to Employer Sanctions.”

7.
Nicholas De Genova,
Working the Boundaries: Race, Space, and “Illegality” in Mexican Chicago
(Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), 235–36.

8.
“Remarks of Senator Barack Obama: The American Promise,” Democratic Convention, Denver,
Huffington Post
, August 8, 2008,
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2008/08/28/barack-obama-democratic-c_n_122224.html
.

9.
Miriam Jordan, “Fresh Raids Target Illegal Hiring,”
Wall Street Journal
, May 2, 2012. See also Julia Preston, “Obama Administration Cracks Down on Illegal Immigrants’ Employers,”
New York Times
, May 29, 2011.

10.
US Department of Labor,
Findings from the National Agricultural Workers Survey (NAWS) 2001–2002: A Demographic and Employment Profile of United States Farm Workers
, Research Report 9, March 2005, 11,
http://www.doleta.gov/agworker/report9/naws_rpt9.pdf
.

11.
Passel,
Size and Characteristics of the Unauthorized Migrant Population
, estimates 24 percent, based on the 2005 Current Population Survey. Other estimates are much higher.

12.
In 2001–2002, the National Agricultural Worker Survey estimated that 53 percent lacked authorization to work in the United States. See US Department of Labor, “Findings from the National Agricultural Workers Survey,” 11. Although this is the most recent report that is fully available to the public, Daniel Carroll of the Department of Labor has summarized the results through 2009 and shows the percentage of farm workers who are undocumented falling only slightly, to around 50 percent, in subsequent years. See Daniel Carroll, “Changing Characteristics of US Farmworkers: 21 Years of Findings from the National Agricultural Workers Survey,” May 12, 2011,
http://migration.ucdavis.edu/cf/files/2011-may/carroll-changing-characteristics.pdf
.

13.
“Migrant Farm Workers: Fields of Tears,”
Economist
, December 16, 2010,
http://www.economist.com/node/17722932
.

14.
Carroll, “Changing Characteristics of US Farmworkers.”

15.
See Helen B. Marrow,
New Destination Dreaming: Immigration, Race, and Legal Status in the Rural American South
(Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011), for a discussion of this phenomenon in North Carolina.

16.
Passel,
Size and Characteristics of the Unauthorized Migrant Population
.

17.
Philip Martin, “Migration and Competitiveness in US Construction and Meatpacking,” April 2012,
http://migration.ucdavis.edu/rs/files/2012/9/ciip/martin-us-construction-and-meatpacking.pdf
.

18.
Steve Striffler,
Chicken: The Dangerous Transformation of America’s Favorite Food
(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005), 5.

19.
Philip L. Martin, “Good Intentions Gone Awry: IRCA and US Agriculture,”
Annals of the Academy of Political and Social Science
534 (July 1994): 45. He is quoting Varden Fuller in
The Supply of Agricultural Labor as a Factor in the Evolution of Farm Organization in California
, Congressional Committee on Education and Labor (LaFollette Committee), 1940, pt. 54, p. 19809.

20.
Don Mitchell,
They Saved the Crops: Labor, Landscape, and the Struggle over Industrial Farming in Bracero-Era California
(Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2012), 11.

21.
Ibid.

22.
Truman Library, “The Migratory Worker in the American Agricultural Labor Force,” ca. November 1950, Subject File, Record Group 220: President’s Commission on Migratory Labor, 1,
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/migratorylabor/documents/index.php?pagenumber=1&documentdate=1950–11–00&documentid=16–2
.

23.
Ibid., 3.

24.
Quoted in Daniel Kanstroom,
Deportation Nation: Outsiders in American History
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 223.

25.
Truman Library, “The Migratory Worker,” 15.

26.
Mitchell,
They Saved the Crops
, 6.

27.
Ibid., 13.

28.
Ibid., 242.

29.
Ibid, 419.

30.
Ibid., 420.

31.
Ibid., 422.

32.
Richard A. Walker,
The Conquest of Bread: 150 Years of Agribusiness in California
(New York: New Press, 2004), 74–75.

33.
Douglas S. Massey and Karen A. Pren, “Unintended Consequences of US Immigration Policy: Explaining the Post-1965 Surge from Latin America,”
Population and Development Review
38, no.1 (March 2012): 3,
http://wws.princeton.edu/coverstories/Massey_LatinAmericaImmigrationSurge/Unintended-Consequences.pdf
.

34.
Mark Overmyer-Velázquez, ed., “Introduction,”
Beyond La Frontera: The History of Mexico-US Migration
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), xxxvii.

35.
Massey and Pren, “Unintended Consequences,” 5.

36.
Douglas S. Massey, Jorge Duran, and Nolan J. Malone,
Beyond Smoke and Mirrors: Mexican Immigration in an Era of Economic Integration
(New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2002), 45.

37.
Martin, “Good Intentions Gone Awry,” 53.

38.
Ibid., 55.

39.
Ibid., 53, 54, 57.

40.
Ibid., 56. David Stoll cites a study of twenty-four labor contractors in the 1990s, all of whom were former migrant farm workers who had obtained legal status through the IRCA. “The ultimate in profitability is to turn one’s co-ethnics or co-nationals into a captive labor force,” he writes in
El Norte or Bust! How Migration Fever and Microcredit Produced a Financial Crash in a Latin American Town
(Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2013), 197.

41.
“Migrant Farm Workers: Fields of Tears,”
Economist
.

42.
United Farm Workers’ Take Our Jobs Update, September 24, 2010,
http://www.ufw.org/_board.php?mode=view&b_code=news_press&b_no=7812&page=7&field=&key=&n=680
.

43.
Linda Calvin and Philip Martin,
The US Produce Industry and Labor: Facing the Future in a Global Economy
, US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Economic Research Report 106, November 2010, 1,
http://www.ers.usda.gov/media/135123/err106.pdf
.

44.
Ibid., iii–iv.

45.
Ibid., 1.

46.
Ibid., 1.

47.
Linda Calvin and Philip Martin, “Labor-Intensive US Fruits and Vegetables Industry Competes in a Global Market,
Amber Waves
, December 2010,
http://webarchives.cdlib.org/sw1vh5dg3r/http://ers.usda.gov/AmberWaves/December10/Features/LaborIntensive.htm
.

48.
“Kansas Seeks Waiver for Undocumented Workers to Solve Farm Crisis,” Fox News Latino, January 30, 2012,
http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/politics/2012/01/30/kansas-seeks-waiver-for-undocumented-workers-to-solve-farm-crisis/
.

49.
Georgia Department of Agriculture, “Report on Agricultural Labor, as Required by House Bill 87,” January 2012, 2,
http://agr.georgia.gov/Data/Sites/1/media/ag_administration/legislation/AgLaborReport.pdf
.

50.
Ibid., 21.

51.
Ibid., 41–43.

52.
Ibid., 46.

53.
Ibid., 50.

54.
Ibid., 63.

55.
Ibid., 100.

56.
“Georgia Immigration Law Forces State to Replace Migrant Farm Workers with Criminals,”
Huffington Post
, June 22, 2011,
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/06/22/georgia-immigration-law-f_n_882050.html
.

57.
Philip Martin,
Importing Poverty? The Changing Face of Rural America
(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009), xiii.

58.
Ray Marshall, “Foreword,” in ibid., ix.

59.
Wright argues that the creation of rural poverty in Mexico’s south is a result of the same economic and agricultural policies that created the export plantations of the North. Angus Wright,
The Death of Ramón González: The Modern Agricultural Dilemma
(Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990; rev. ed., 2005).

60.
Ibid., xvi.

61.
See, for example, Eric Schlosser,
Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001/2012).

CHAPTER 6: WORKING (PART 2)

1.
The decline in employment was due to increased efficiency and increased imports as well as outsourcing. See Philip Martin, “Migration and Competitiveness in US Construction and Meatpacking,” conference paper, April 24, 2012,
http://migration.ucdavis.edu/rs/files/2012/9/ciip/martin-us-construction-and-meatpacking.pdf.1
.

2.
Ibid., 1.

3.
Ibid., 5–6, 7.

4.
Ibid., 16.

5.
Ibid., 8.

6.
Joan W. Moore,
In the Barrios: Latinos and the Underclass Debate
(New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1993), 116.

7.
Patrick Jankowski, “Potential Tax Revenues from Unauthorized Workers in Houston’s Economy,” Greater Houston Partnership, January 2012,
http://www.houston.org/pdf/research/whitepapers/taxrevenuesundocumentedworkers.pdf. His estimate was based on Pew Hispanic Foundation estimates for the national level
.