Voices of Islam (277 page)

on, 146–47;
Shari‘a
interpretations, 145–53

Hope Project, 178

Huntington, Samuel, 207–10

Index
227

‘Ibadat
(ritual/spiritual acts), 86–87, 91, 92–93, 94, 158

Ibadi Islam, 18 n.19; condemnation of innovation, 5–6, 8–9

Ibn ‘Abd al-Barr, 7, 9

Ibn al-Qayyim, 13, 54

Ibn ‘Arabi, 154–55

Ibn Hajar, 6, 10

Ibn Rushd, Abu al-Walid (Averroe¨s), 35–37, 132

Ibn Sina, Abu ‘Ali (Avicenna): Active Intellect, 32–33; philosophical

approach, 29; prophetology, 30, 32–

33, 34

Ibrahim, Anwar, 158

Ijtihad
(independent reasoning): contemporary context, 15–17; distinguished from
bid‘a,
10–13; historical perspective, 14–15; need for (on homosexuality), 153–54, 159; rationale for, 87

Imam, as living exemplar, 34

Imami (Twelver) Shi‘ism: Ramadan group prayer, 7;
Sunna–bid‘a
(innovation/heresy) paradigm, 8

Imam Zaid Shakir, 47

IMAN.
See
Inner City Muslim Action Network

Immigrants: black American– immigrant relations, 46–49, 53–55,

58, 212; demographics, 46, 64 n.15,

210; Hispanic, 210; historical

perspective, 77–79

Immigration Act of 1965, 47

Inayat, Himayati, 177

Inayat Khan, Pir-O Mushid Hazrat, 169–70, 173–79, 181, 190, 191,

192

Inayat Khan, Pir Vilayat, 170, 174,

178–79, 182, 193

Inayat Khan, Pir Zia, 177, 179

The Incoherence of the Incoherence
(Ibn Rushd), 37

The Incoherence of the Philosophers
(al- Ghazali), 35

India, 148.
See also
South Asian immigrants

Indonesia, 148, 172

Inner City Muslim Action Network (IMAN), 55–56

Innovation:
bid‘a,
1–4, 8, 10; Ramadan

group prayer, 6–8, 12

Intention, 139

International Institute of Islamic Thought, 213

International Sufi Order, 174 Internet:
fatwas,
154, 160, 166 n.39;

influence on Interspiritual Age, 170 Interspiritual Age, 169–72, 188, 190–

93

Involution of the soul, 184 Iqbal, Muhammad, 119–20 IQRA International Educational

Foundation, 51, 52

Iran, gender roles, 100, 102

Isfahani, 144

Islam: conversion to, 4, 54–55, 210; cultural significance of, 45; diversity and geographical dispersion, 43; as ‘‘failed Christianity,’’ 70, 73–74; four dimensions of, 172–73; syncretism with Interspiritual thinking, 172, 190–93; syncretism

with Sufism, 175;
Umma,
43.
See also
African American Muslims; American Muslims; Muslims; Progressive Islam

Islam and the Blackamerican
(Jackson), 46

Islamic law,
ijtihad
traditions, 10–13 Islamic philosophy: influence of Greek

philosophy on, 24, 25–27;

prophetology and, 30–35;

relationship to religion, 23, 27; scholarly views of, 24–30; spiritual exercises, 24, 25, 28–30, 32, 36

Islamic revivalism groups, 117 Islamic Society of North America

(ISNA), 58

Islamophobia: Huntington, Samuel, 207–10; Lewis, Bernard, 201–6 ISNA.
See
Islamic Society of North

America

Isnad
(narrators), 150

228
Index

Israel, 206; Christian Zionism, 213–

16; Palestinian-Israeli conflict, 200–

201, 215

Jablonski, Carl, 182

Al-Jabri, Muhammad Abed, 27–28 Jackson, Sherman A. (Abd al-Hakim),

46

Al-Jawziyya, Ibn Qayyim, 13, 54 Jesus: appearance to Lewis, Samuel,

180; monasticism, 4–5

Jews: American, 211; progressive Muslims, association with, 122; Sufism, association with, 193; Zionist, 215

Jihad
(struggle; social justice): Bawa Muhaiyadeen on, 189; meaning of term, 11; Muslim interpretations of, 200

Johnson, John, 177

Judaism, philosophical tradition, 27 Jurisprudence: contradictory opinions,

11–12; gender roles, interpretations of, 86, 91–95; homosexuality, views

of, 145–53;
ijtihad
traditions, 10–

13;
Sunna–bid‘a
(innovation/

heresy) paradigm, 8–10 Jurists, women as, 106 n.23 Justice, Qur’an on, 166–67 n.41

Kadivar, Mohsen, 102

Kalam
(theology), 128; Christian, 27; Muslim progressives and, 121

Kalima,
190

Kalu Rinpoche, 179 Khalid ibn Walid, 150

Al-Khidr (prophet), 180

Khomeini, Ruhollah (ayatollah), 15, 122

Khul‘
(divorce), 90

King, Martin Luther, 217

Kinship Concentration (Sufism), 178 Klee, Paul, 123

Koselleck, Reinhart, 125

Lacan, Jacques, 165–66 n.34 Latinos, 48, 210

Latour, Bruno, 125

Leaman, Oliver, 26, 28

Lebanon, 148

Legal rulings: family law, 96, 104; types of, 86–87.
See also
Jurisprudence

Legal schools: contradictory opinions, 11–12;
ijtihad
traditions, 10–13

Legal sources, 86, 104 n.4, 132

Lesbian women, 143–45, 146–47

Lewis, Bernard, 201–6

Lewis, Murshid Samuel Ahmad Murad Chishti, 170, 174, 179–82, 192,

193

Lewis, Shakir (pseudonym), 55 Lincoln, E. Eric, 70

Liwata
(sodomy), 148

Lot (prophet), 141–43

Lust (
shahwa
), 140

Madyun, Abdullah (imam), 49–51, 54–

55, 61

Malcolm X, 44, 46–47

Malik ibn Anas (imam), 151–52 Manichaeans, 3, 17–18 n.8

Mansuri, Shabbir, 213

Ma‘rifat
(inner discernment), 173, 176 Marriage: adultery (
zina
), 151–52;

classical views of, 88–90, 105 n.11;

juristic interpretations, 92; Modernist (Neo-Traditionalist) dis- course on, 97; of orphans, 145; between same-sex partners, 153–55, 159–60

Martin, Ada (Rabia), 174, 176, 185

Marvels of Things Devised
(al-Kasani), 13

Masjid
(mosque), ethnic mosques, 47, 65 n.18

Masnawi/Mathnawi
(Rumi), 189–90

Mating relationships, 154–55, 159–60

Matn
(textual content), 150 Al-Maturidi, 132, 134

Maududi (Mawdudi), Maulana Abdul A’la, 98, 122

Mearsheimer, John, 214

Media: depictions of Muslims, 210–11, 216; effect on classical authority, 14;

Index
229

influence on Interspiritual Age, 170; secular bias of, 214

Medina, 6

Meditation, 178, 182, 186, 191, 192

Meher Baba, 170, 182–87, 190, 192

Men,
ghayra
(men’s sexuality), 93–94

Metaphysics of the Healing
(Ibn Sina), 32–33

Minimalism, doctrine of, 4 Modernists.
See
Muslim Modernists Mohammed, W.D.
See
Warith Deen

Mohammed Monasticism, 4–5

Moorish Science Temple, 76–77, 78 Morality.
See
Ethics

Morewedge, Parviz, 33 Moroccan family code, 104 Mottahedeh, Roy, 209

Mu‘amalat
(social/contractual acts), 86–87, 91, 92–93, 94, 158

Muhammad: appearance to Lewis, Samuel, 180; Bawa Muhaiyaddeen on, 188–89; on
bid‘a
(innovation), 6; Inayat Khan on mission of, 175– 76; minimalism, doctrine of, 4; prophetic inspiration of, 31

Muhaqqiq al-Hilli, 88–89

Mujtihad,
12–13

Murad, Ahmad.
See
Lewis, Murshid Samuel Ahmad Murad Chishti

Murder, 6, 8

Murids
(disciples), 177, 182

Murshids
(spiritual guides), 173, 174,

177, 185

Murshid Sam.
See
Lewis, Murshid Samuel Ahmad Murad Chishti

Muslim Activists, 209;
ijtihad,
approach to, 14; IMAN (Inner City Muslim Action Network), 55–56

Muslim American Society (MAS).
See

Warith Deen Mohammed

Muslim charities, suspicion of links to Al Qaeda, 57

Muslim Modernists: gender balance, discourse on, 95–100;
ijtihad,
approach to, 14; inevitability of progress theory, 118–20

Muslim Public Affairs Committee, 212

Muslims: Islamophobia, 201–10;

media depiction of, 210–11, 216; South African, 120–22; Western culture, views of, 199–201.
See also
African American Muslims; American Muslims

Musnad
(Ahmad in Hanbal), 152 Mutahhari, Murteza, 98, 99–100

Al-Muwatta
(Malik ibn Anas), 151– 52

Nafaqa
(maintenance), 90 Nahas, Muhammad Omar, 137 Nashashibi, Rami, 56–57, 63 Nasr, Seyyed Hossein: Crescent

University project, 213;

prophetology, 34, 38; spiritual

exercises, 28–30

Nationalism, 216–17

Nation of Islam, 49, 74, 79–80;
da‘wa

(invitation), 54; Malcolm X and, 44; origin of, 62; resistance to racism, 45, 47

Native Americans, 48

Nature: Qur’an on, 191; as scripture, 175

Nawawi, 6

Neo-Traditionalists: gender balance, discourse on, 95–100, 102; homo-

sexuality, views of, 137, 148–49

New Age Movement, 169–72, 188–89,

190–93

Nietzsche, Friedrich, 129 Nizam al-Din Awliya, 132–33

Noble Drew Ali.
See
Ali, Noble Drew Nonreproductive sexual intercourse,

144

North Carolina, University of, 213 Nyogen Senzaki, 180

Omega Institute, 178

Orientalism, 26–28, 202 Orphans, marriage of, 145

Palestinian-Israeli conflict, 200–201,

206, 215

230
Index

Parda/purdah. See
Veils

Patriarchy: gender roles, interpretations of, 86, 94, 96–97, 105 n.18, 134;

sexuality and sexual orientation, interpretation of, 134–35, 143, 145–

46, 152–53

PATRIOT Bill, 212

Patriotism, 217

Peace Movement, influence on Interspiritual Age, 170

Perfect Man, 181

Peripateticism, 29–30; cultivation of virtues, 37; al-Ghazali condemnation of, 35–37, 38; prophetology and,

30–35, 37.
See also
Aristotle

Persecution and the Art of Writing

(Strauss), 26–27

Personality: homosexuality and, 136– 37; levels of, 137–39, 155–56, 157,

162; phases of the soul, 160–62 Philosophy: approaches to, 23–30;

relationship to religion, 23, 27.
See also
Islamic philosophy

Philosophy as a Way of Life
(Hadot), 24– 25, 27

Pir Fakhruddin, 178

Plato, 29, 31

Pluralism, 131, 159, 205, 208–9,

217

The Political State
(al-Farabi), 31 Politics, American Muslim participation

in, 212

Polygyny, 90, 99, 105 n.16, 145 Poole, Elijah.
See
Elijah Muhammad Powell, Colin, 203

Prabhu, Manik, 174 Prayer.
See Salat

Pre-Islamic period:
bid‘a,
concept of, 2–3; marriage, 92

The Principle of Epistemology in Islamic Philosophy
(Yazdi), 31

Progressive Islam: approaches and possibilities, 126–29; capital punishment, 158; concept and terminology, 115–18; evolution of history and progress, 118–20, 123; morality and, 157; nationalism,

rejection of, 216; South African experience, 120–22; traditionalism and inherited knowledges, 123–26

Prophetology, 30–35

Prophets, Active Intellect and, 33 Protestants.
See
Evangelical Christians Psychiatry: clinical approaches to sexual

orientation, 136–37, 139; Sufism

and, 182

Psychology, in New Age Movement, 171, 191

Pudenda (
‘awra
), 91, 94

Punishment for homosexuality, 149– 52, 154, 158, 165 n.32

Purdah and the Status of Women in Islam
(Maududi), 98

Al Qaeda, 57, 200, 203

Al-Qarafi, 12–13

Qawwal,
181

Qur’an:
bid‘a,
references to, 2, 4–5; on

da‘wa
(invitation), 54, 66 n.38; on

diversity, 135, 163 n.6; on gender

roles, 105 n.20, 134–35; on mating

relationships, 154–55, 159–60; on

personality, 137–39, 155; phases of the soul, 160–62; progressive Muslims and, 122; sexuality and sexual orientation, 139–45, 146–47,

154–55, 159–60; on slavery, 72; spiritual exemplars, 34; university studies of, 213

Qur’an, Liberation and Pluralism

(Esack), 122

Qutb al-aqtab. See
Meher Baba Qutb, Sayyid, 15, 122

Rabia (Martin), 174, 176, 185 Race/ethnic considerations: black

American–immigrant relations, 46–

51, 53–55, 58, 212; Islamophobia,

201–10; racial profiling, 53, 57; South Africa, 120–22.
See also
African American Muslims; Immigrants

Ramadan, group prayer during, 6–8, 12

Index
231

Ramadan, Mikal (imam), 59–61 Rami Nashashibi, 56–57, 63

Rape, 141–43

Raphaelite Work, 177

Al-Razi, Fakhr al-Din, 140

Reasoning: knowledge of religion, 133; types of, 36

Reincarnation, 184

Religion (
din
), knowledge of, 133 Resurrection of bodies, 35 Revelation, 175–76

Revival of the Religious Sciences
(al- Ghazali), 88

Rhetorical reasoning, 36

Rice, Condoleezza, 207

Rida, Rashid, 144

Rights, marital, 89–90

Ritualistic matters:
bid‘a
and, 9;
‘ibadat

(ritual/spiritual acts), 86–87, 91,

92–93, 94, 158

Robertson, Pat, 215

Rumi, Mevlana Jalaluddin, 170, 183–

84, 189–90

Sachedina, 93, 94

Sa‘idzadeh, Mohsen, 102

Salahuddin, Imam Sultan, 53–54, 58

Salat
(prayer): African Muslim slaves, 71–72; covering of body during, 91,