What Hath God Wrought (152 page)
Read What Hath God Wrought Online
Authors: Daniel Walker Howe
Tags: #History, #United States, #19th Century, #Americas (North; Central; South; West Indies), #Modern, #General, #Religion
91. Richard Ellis,
The Union at Risk: Jacksonian Democracy, States’ Rights, and the Nullification Crisis
(New York, 1987), 11–12, 81–88.
The Union at Risk: Jacksonian Democracy, States’ Rights, and the Nullification Crisis
(New York, 1987), 11–12, 81–88.
92. See documents rpt. in William Freehling,
The Nullification Era
(New York, 1967), 170–71, 175–80.
The Nullification Era
(New York, 1967), 170–71, 175–80.
93. Augustus Buell,
History of Andrew Jackson
(New York, 1904), II, 244–45; italics in original.
History of Andrew Jackson
(New York, 1904), II, 244–45; italics in original.
94. Ibid., 122–57.
95.
Register of Debates
, 22nd Cong., 2nd sess. (Feb. 20, 1833), 688 (Senate); (March 1, 1833), 1903 (House).
Register of Debates
, 22nd Cong., 2nd sess. (Feb. 20, 1833), 688 (Senate); (March 1, 1833), 1903 (House).
96. Henry Clay to Nicholas Biddle, April 10, 1833,
Papers of Henry Clay
, ed. Robert Seager II (Lexington, Ky., 1984), VIII, 637. My interpretation of the compromise follows that of Ratcliffe, “Nullification Crisis.”
Papers of Henry Clay
, ed. Robert Seager II (Lexington, Ky., 1984), VIII, 637. My interpretation of the compromise follows that of Ratcliffe, “Nullification Crisis.”
97. See Merrill Peterson,
Olive Branch and Sword: The Compromise of 1833
(Baton Rouge, 1982).
Olive Branch and Sword: The Compromise of 1833
(Baton Rouge, 1982).
98. See John Larson,
Internal Improvement
(Chapel Hill, 2001), 187–193; John Van Atta, “Western Lands and the Political Economy of Henry Clay’s American System,”
JER
21 (Winter 2001): 633–65.
Internal Improvement
(Chapel Hill, 2001), 187–193; John Van Atta, “Western Lands and the Political Economy of Henry Clay’s American System,”
JER
21 (Winter 2001): 633–65.
99. Peterson,
Olive Branch and Sword
, 55.
Olive Branch and Sword
, 55.
100. Ellis,
Union at Risk
, 180.
Union at Risk
, 180.
101. AJ to Andrew J. Crawford, May 1, 1833,
Correspondence of AJ
, V, 72.
Correspondence of AJ
, V, 72.
102.
Presidential Messages
, III, 4.
Presidential Messages
, III, 4.
103. Remini,
Jackson
, III, 79.
Jackson
, III, 79.
1. Richard Hofstadter and Michael Wallace, eds.,
American Violence: A Documentary History
(New York, 1971), 477.
American Violence: A Documentary History
(New York, 1971), 477.
2. Horace Greeley,
The American Conflict
(Hartford, Conn., 1864), I, 106, citing the memory of George Briggs. Although the story rests on a recollection long after the fact, it is consistent with Jackson’s behavior and quite in character. He wrote to John Coffee: “The decision of the Supreme court has fell still born, and they find that it cannot coerce Georgia to yield to its mandate” (April 7, 1832),
Correspondence of AJ
, IV, 430.
The American Conflict
(Hartford, Conn., 1864), I, 106, citing the memory of George Briggs. Although the story rests on a recollection long after the fact, it is consistent with Jackson’s behavior and quite in character. He wrote to John Coffee: “The decision of the Supreme court has fell still born, and they find that it cannot coerce Georgia to yield to its mandate” (April 7, 1832),
Correspondence of AJ
, IV, 430.
3. Quoted in John G. West Jr.,
The Politics of Revelation and Reason
(Lawrence, Kans., 1996), 172. See also Edwin Miles, “After John Marshall’s Decision,”
Journal of Southern History
39 (1973): 519–44.
The Politics of Revelation and Reason
(Lawrence, Kans., 1996), 172. See also Edwin Miles, “After John Marshall’s Decision,”
Journal of Southern History
39 (1973): 519–44.
4. Quoted in G. Edward White,
The Marshall Court and Cultural Change
(New York, 1991), 739.
The Marshall Court and Cultural Change
(New York, 1991), 739.
5. Michael Birkner, “The New York–New Jersey Boundary Controversy, John Marshall, and the Nullification Crisis,”
JER
12 (1992): 195–212.
JER
12 (1992): 195–212.
6.
Barron v. Baltimore
, 32 U.S. (7 Peters) 243 (1833); Walker Mayo, “The Federal Bill of Rights and the States Before the Fourteenth Amendment” (D.Phil. thesis, Oxford University, 1993).
Barron v. Baltimore
, 32 U.S. (7 Peters) 243 (1833); Walker Mayo, “The Federal Bill of Rights and the States Before the Fourteenth Amendment” (D.Phil. thesis, Oxford University, 1993).
7. Joel Chandler Harris,
Stories of Georgia
(New York, 1896), 216.
Stories of Georgia
(New York, 1896), 216.
8. H. David Williams, “The Cherokee Nation and Georgia’s Gold and Land Lotteries of 1832–33,”
Georgia Historical Quarterly
73 (1989): 519–39; Mary Young, “The Exercise of Sovereignty in Cherokee Georgia,”
JER
10 (1990): 43–63.
Georgia Historical Quarterly
73 (1989): 519–39; Mary Young, “The Exercise of Sovereignty in Cherokee Georgia,”
JER
10 (1990): 43–63.
9. Theda Perdue, “The Conflict Within: Cherokees and Removal,” in
Cherokee Removal: Before and After
, ed. William Anderson (Athens, Ga., 1991), 55–74. For more on Cherokee internal politics, see Gary Moulton,
John Ross, Cherokee Chief
(Athens, Ga., 1978); Duane Champagne,
Social Order and Political Change: Constitutional Governments Among the Cherokee, the Choctaw, the Chickasaw, and the Creek
(Stanford, 1992).
Cherokee Removal: Before and After
, ed. William Anderson (Athens, Ga., 1991), 55–74. For more on Cherokee internal politics, see Gary Moulton,
John Ross, Cherokee Chief
(Athens, Ga., 1978); Duane Champagne,
Social Order and Political Change: Constitutional Governments Among the Cherokee, the Choctaw, the Chickasaw, and the Creek
(Stanford, 1992).
10. See Mary Young, “Conflict Resolution on the Indian Frontier,”
JER
16 (1996): 1–19.
JER
16 (1996): 1–19.
11. Anthony Wallace,
The Long, Bitter Trail
(New York, 1993), 88–94. Estimates of Cherokee deaths in connection with Removal range from 1,600 to 8,000. The controversy is summarized in Ronald Satz, “The Cherokee Trail of Tears,”
Georgia Historical Quarterly
73 (1989), 431–32; Russell Thornton,
The Cherokees: A Population History
(Lincoln, Neb., 1990), 73–77.
The Long, Bitter Trail
(New York, 1993), 88–94. Estimates of Cherokee deaths in connection with Removal range from 1,600 to 8,000. The controversy is summarized in Ronald Satz, “The Cherokee Trail of Tears,”
Georgia Historical Quarterly
73 (1989), 431–32; Russell Thornton,
The Cherokees: A Population History
(Lincoln, Neb., 1990), 73–77.
12. Both quotations are from Paul Prucha,
The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians
(Lincoln, Neb., 1984), I, 222. The frauds practiced on the Creeks are thoroughly documented in Mary Young,
Redskins, Ruffleshirts, and Rednecks: Indian Allotments in Alabama and Mississippi, 1830–1860
(Norman, Okla., 1961), 3–98.
The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians
(Lincoln, Neb., 1984), I, 222. The frauds practiced on the Creeks are thoroughly documented in Mary Young,
Redskins, Ruffleshirts, and Rednecks: Indian Allotments in Alabama and Mississippi, 1830–1860
(Norman, Okla., 1961), 3–98.
13. Ronald Satz,
American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era
(Lincoln, Neb., 1975), 105.
American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era
(Lincoln, Neb., 1975), 105.
14. Michael Doran, “Population Statistics of Nineteenth-Century Indian Territory,”
Chronicles of Oklahoma
53 (1975–76): 497–500.
Chronicles of Oklahoma
53 (1975–76): 497–500.
15. Satz,
American Indian Policy
, 103.
American Indian Policy
, 103.
16. Anthony Wallace, “Introduction,”
The Black Hawk War
, ed. Ellen Whitney (Spring. field, Ill., 1970).
The Black Hawk War
, ed. Ellen Whitney (Spring. field, Ill., 1970).
17. William Klunder,
Lewis Cass
(Kent, Ohio, 1996), 68–69; William Hagan,
The Sac and Fox Indians
(Norman, Okla., 1958), 153–91. Also see
Black Hawk: An Autobiography,
ed. Donald Jackson (Urbana, Ill., 1955).
Lewis Cass
(Kent, Ohio, 1996), 68–69; William Hagan,
The Sac and Fox Indians
(Norman, Okla., 1958), 153–91. Also see
Black Hawk: An Autobiography,
ed. Donald Jackson (Urbana, Ill., 1955).
18. See Ethan Allen Hitchcock,
A Traveller in Indian Territory
, rpt. with foreword by Michael Green (Norman, Okla., 1996).
A Traveller in Indian Territory
, rpt. with foreword by Michael Green (Norman, Okla., 1996).
19. Donald Cole,
The Presidency of Andrew Jackson
(Lawrence, Kans., 1993), 116. Currency equivalent calculated using the Consumer Price Index in Bureau of the Census,
Historical Statistics of the United States
(Washington, 1975).
The Presidency of Andrew Jackson
(Lawrence, Kans., 1993), 116. Currency equivalent calculated using the Consumer Price Index in Bureau of the Census,
Historical Statistics of the United States
(Washington, 1975).
20. Andrew Jackson to James Monroe, March 4, 1817, quoted in Robert Remini,
The Legacy of Andrew Jackson
(Baton Rouge, 1988), 49.
The Legacy of Andrew Jackson
(Baton Rouge, 1988), 49.
21. Harry Watson,
Liberty and Power: The Politics of Jacksonian America
(New York, 1990), 109.
Liberty and Power: The Politics of Jacksonian America
(New York, 1990), 109.
22. See, e.g., Klunder,
Lewis Cass
, 70.
Lewis Cass
, 70.
23. Explained in detail by Lindsay Robertson,
Conquest by Law: How the Discovery of America Dispossessed Indigenous Peoples of Their Lands
(Oxford, 2005).
Conquest by Law: How the Discovery of America Dispossessed Indigenous Peoples of Their Lands
(Oxford, 2005).
24. Tim Garrison,
The Legal Ideology of Removal
(Athens, Ga., 2002), 234–45; John Farragher, “From Ethnic Mixing to Ethnic Cleansing,” in
Contact Points
, ed. Andrew Cayton and Fredrika Teute (Chapel Hill, 1998), 304–26.
The Legal Ideology of Removal
(Athens, Ga., 2002), 234–45; John Farragher, “From Ethnic Mixing to Ethnic Cleansing,” in
Contact Points
, ed. Andrew Cayton and Fredrika Teute (Chapel Hill, 1998), 304–26.
25. “Fourth Annual Message” (Dec. 4, 1832),
Presidential Messages
, II, 600.
Presidential Messages
, II, 600.
26. See Young,
Redskins, Ruffleshirts, and Rednecks
, 172–90.
Redskins, Ruffleshirts, and Rednecks
, 172–90.
27. Martin Van Buren,
Autobiography
, ed. John Fitzpatrick (Washington, 1920), II, 295–96.
Autobiography
, ed. John Fitzpatrick (Washington, 1920), II, 295–96.
28.
New York Times
(national ed.), Nov. 11, 1992, A-7.
New York Times
(national ed.), Nov. 11, 1992, A-7.
29.
David Walker’s Appeal, in Four Articles
, ed. Sean Wilentz (New York, 1995), 10. Walker’s allusion to Thomas Jefferson is based on the latter’s
Notes on the State of Virginia
(London, 1787), Query XIV.
David Walker’s Appeal, in Four Articles
, ed. Sean Wilentz (New York, 1995), 10. Walker’s allusion to Thomas Jefferson is based on the latter’s
Notes on the State of Virginia
(London, 1787), Query XIV.
30.
David Walker’s Appeal
, 11–12.
David Walker’s Appeal
, 11–12.
31. Clement Eaton, “A Dangerous Pamphlet in the Old South,”
Journal of Southern History
2 (1936): 323–34; Peter Hinks,
To Awaken My Afflicted Brethren
(University Park, Pa., 1997), 25–40, 127–31. Boston city records list Walker’s cause of death as consumption; modern historians disagree over the likelihood of foul play.
Journal of Southern History
2 (1936): 323–34; Peter Hinks,
To Awaken My Afflicted Brethren
(University Park, Pa., 1997), 25–40, 127–31. Boston city records list Walker’s cause of death as consumption; modern historians disagree over the likelihood of foul play.
32. For Garrison’s postmillennialism, see Henry Mayer,
All on Fire: William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolition of Slavery
(New York, 1998), 125, 225.
All on Fire: William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolition of Slavery
(New York, 1998), 125, 225.
33.
Liberator
1 (Jan. 1, 1831): 1.
Liberator
1 (Jan. 1, 1831): 1.
34. Kathleen D. McCarthy,
American Creed: Philanthropy and the Rise of Civil Society
(Chicago, 2003), 135. The AASS membership statistics are given in Louis Filler,
The Crusade Against Slavery
(New York, 1960), 67.
American Creed: Philanthropy and the Rise of Civil Society
(Chicago, 2003), 135. The AASS membership statistics are given in Louis Filler,
The Crusade Against Slavery
(New York, 1960), 67.
35. William Lloyd Garrison,
Thoughts on African Colonization
(Boston, 1832), pt. ii, p. 5.
Thoughts on African Colonization
(Boston, 1832), pt. ii, p. 5.
36. Allison Freehling,
Drift Toward Dissolution
(Baton Rouge, 1982), 177–95.
Drift Toward Dissolution
(Baton Rouge, 1982), 177–95.
37. Vincent Harding,
There Is a River
(New York, 1981), 94.
There Is a River
(New York, 1981), 94.
38. Mayer,
All on Fire
, 195–200.
All on Fire
, 195–200.
39. Sherman Savage,
The Controversy over the Distribution of Abolitionist Literature
(New York, 1938), 1–26, updated by Richard R. John,
Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse
(Cambridge, Mass., 1995), 257–63.
The Controversy over the Distribution of Abolitionist Literature
(New York, 1938), 1–26, updated by Richard R. John,
Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse
(Cambridge, Mass., 1995), 257–63.
40. Amos Kendall to Andrew Jackson, Aug. 7, 1835, and Andrew Jackson to Amos Kendall, Aug. 9, 1835,
Correspondence of AJ
, V, 359–61; “Message to Congress” (Dec. 7, 1835),
Presidential Messages
, III, 1394–95.
Correspondence of AJ
, V, 359–61; “Message to Congress” (Dec. 7, 1835),
Presidential Messages
, III, 1394–95.
41. Kendall’s instructions to the New York City postmaster were printed in
Niles’ Weekly Register
, Sept. 5, 1835.
Niles’ Weekly Register
, Sept. 5, 1835.
42. See Richard R. John, “Hiland Hall’s Report on Incendiary Publications,”
American Journal of Legal History
41 (1997): 94–125.
American Journal of Legal History
41 (1997): 94–125.
43. Amos Kendall to Alfred Huger, Aug. 4, 1835,
Charleston Courier
, Aug. 14, 1835. See also Clement Eaton,
The Freedom-of-Thought Struggle in the Old South
, rev. ed. (New York, 1964), 196–212; Susan Wyly-Jones, “The 1835 Anti-Abolition Meetings in the South,”
Civil War History
47 (2001): 289–309.
Charleston Courier
, Aug. 14, 1835. See also Clement Eaton,
The Freedom-of-Thought Struggle in the Old South
, rev. ed. (New York, 1964), 196–212; Susan Wyly-Jones, “The 1835 Anti-Abolition Meetings in the South,”
Civil War History
47 (2001): 289–309.
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