When Elephants Fight (15 page)

While there were times when the war was less intense and others when it was more lethal, it extended from one year before independence in 1955 and lasted until 1972. This left at least 1.5 million people killed and millions displaced both internally within the country and to countries surrounding Sudan.

This constant state of war left an already destitute country unable to harness its resources, either natural or human, as war destroys infrastructure and diverts money and attention away from caring for the people through education, health or general welfare, to security and weapons.

The civil war was finally ended when the Addis Ababa Peace Accord was signed in 1972. This allowed for the southern area to become a single administrative region with defined power and considerable autonomy in making many political decisions that related to their region. This agreement allowed the two regions
to coexist in relative harmony with no major civil unrest. However, there was always a sense of mistrust between the people in the two regions.

The cooking area in Toma's family's shelter in the Forbranga refugee camp. Up to three million Sudanese are displaced and living in camps, relying on international aid groups for humanitarian relief
.

During the early 1980s it was felt that the central government, in the north, was attempting to undermine the autonomy of the southern region. There were attempts to replace local administration and to implement Islamic laws and the Arabic language in the south. This was in complete violation of the Peace Accord, and these efforts were met with protest—both peaceful and violent—in the southern region.

This conflict was also fueled by the discovery of deposits of oil in the southern area of the country, and disputes over how these resources would be exploited and how the revenue would be divided between the two regions.

The Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) became the dominant rebel group to both protect the people of the south from the soldiers of the north and to advocate for the creation of greater independence and a change to a more democratic form of government. They launched attacks against government troops and facilities.

This second civil war—although some historians simply view it as an extension of the first since it was driven by basically the same unresolved issues—broke out in 1983. Once again people were killed, property, crops and infrastructure were destroyed, millions of people fled the fighting and the limited resources of the country were directed to war rather than the betterment of the people. If anything, this war was even more brutal and lethal than the first phase of the civil war. It is estimated that by the time the conflict ended in 2005, that almost two million civilians were killed and that over five million people were displaced, fleeing the war and its effects.

In January, 2005, a peace accord was signed that once again allowed the southern region considerable autonomy, a share of revenue from oil production and the right to peacefully form a separate country in six years if the majority of the people wished that end. In some ways this mirrored the previous agreement with the further condition being the consideration of total independence.

In a country with limited resources, war and drought left it even more destitute. This became a crisis point in the western region of the country, known as Darfur, bordering the country of Chad. This conflict had been simmering for years with occasional flares of extreme violence.

The majority of people in the region are from three African tribal groups—the Fur, Masalit and Zaghawa. They tend to be mainly farmers living in small villages, defined by tribe and extended family. The Arab groups often survived by tending to migratory flocks. It is important to note that both groups are primarily Muslim, so religion was not seen as a source of conflict. Instead, in a country which experienced periods of drought, these two groups often came into conflict for scarce resources.

In 1998 a major episode of violence ensued in which over sixty Masalit villages and one Arab village were burned to the ground, and hundreds of people were killed. The government attempted to quell these disturbances, but there was always a feeling that there was a bias against the African tribal members and that the Arabic-speaking people were supported by the government. The African people did not believe that the government would support and protect them, or prosecute Arabs who were committing crimes against them. Two militia groups, the Sudan Liberation Army (SLA) and Justice and Equality Movement (JEM),
acted to protect the interests of the tribal groups and to advocate for greater autonomy, or even independence, from Khartoum.

Outright conflict broke out in 2003. Government troops were sent in large numbers to the Darfur region. Roving gangs of militia, known as the Janjaweed, began attacking members of the tribal groups. These militias were supported and armed by the government. Villages were raided, burned to the ground, and people were killed, kidnapped or raped. These militia members were often accompanied by government soldiers or given air support (providing reconnaissance, dropping bombs or strafing civilians on the ground).

International attention became focused on this conflict. It was identified by outside sources as being genocide, and the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution demanding that the government intervene and control the militia. Basically the government denied all allegations against it, refused to restrain the militia and would not allow the intervention of United Nations troops to provide security and protection. The United Nations, often divided by the interests of member states, was not able to launch any sort of effective response to what was clearly seen as genocidal in nature.

Sudan did, however, originally allow a small number of troops from the African Union (AU) to be stationed in the country. These troops were poorly equipped, underfunded and undersupplied and were far too few in number to provide any form of security to the region. They were also given a mandate to only observe but not intervene or protect civilians. They could document massacres but not act to prevent them.

In addition, attempts to provide humanitarian aid—food, water and shelter—to the displaced people were thwarted by the ongoing danger and warfare in the country and efforts by the government to not allow them to intervene. Violence and threats of violence toward international aid workers caused great restrictions in the ability of these non-governmental organizations to provide aid. As with many conflicts, the death toll, especially for children and the elderly, was higher due to the effects of the conflict— disease, famine and lack of shelter— than from the actual violence of the conflict.

Hundreds of thousands of civilians fled Sudan during this conflict, moving into Chad. This has had a destabilizing effect on Chad—a country as poor as Sudan—which does not have the resources or wealth to easily absorb large numbers
of refugees. The Chadian government also believed that the Sudan government was supporting and arming rebel groups within its country, as well as allowing the Janjaweed militia to cross the border and attack Chad villages, steal cattle and kill Chadian citizens.

Children, many orphaned and alone, remain victims of the ongoing crisis in the Sudan
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Throughout the ongoing conflict, there were continual attempts by the United Nations to advocate for the disarmament of the militia, allow aid to displaced people and pursue a course of peace. The United Nations issued statements saying that there was a “scorched earth campaign” of ethnic cleansing, that it was the world's greatest humanitarian crisis and comparing it to the genocide in Rwanda.

In response, the Sudanese government consistently refused to acknowledge the extent of the crisis or its role in supporting the militia, or follow through on commitments to disarm them, or protect aid workers and supplies. Attempts to broker a cease-fire continually faltered. It was only in 2007, four years after the conflict reached a boiling point, that the Sudanese government agreed to allow a joint UN and African Union force to be deployed in its country. This will provide a more comprehensive
peace-keeping mission and allow for better distribution of humanitarian aid to help those who have been displaced, their villages and livelihood destroyed. This effort continues to be thwarted by political interests.

It is estimated that well in excess of four hundred thousand people, mostly black Africans, were killed by the Janjaweed militia and the conditions they created, and over three million people have fled their homes to seek refugee from the killing. These people remain unable to return to their homes for fear that they will be killed or because they simply have no place to return to.

The term comes from the Latin word
anima
, which means breath or soul. It is considered the oldest of human religions. While many religions (Islam, Christianity, Judaism) believe that people possess a soul that transcends life, the Animism belief is that all objects contain a soul or spirit and that these spirits are continually interacting throughout the universe. It also differs from those religions in being a polytheism—a belief in thousands of Gods—as opposed to a belief in one supreme being or monotheism. In this regard, Animism is more closely linked to the Hindu faith. In Animism there is a highly interconnected relationship between people, other life forms, inanimate objects and naturally occurring phenomenon, such as storms, fire or earthquakes. All these possess spirits and souls, and these can interact in a positive or negative manner with humans, depending upon the care, circumstances and ceremonies that take place. While it is ancient in origin, it is still practiced, in differing forms, by millions of people around the world.

Throughout the course of human history, different civilizations have become more dominant at different times. In the eighteenth century the European powers were dominant. They possessed weapons, transportation and technology that allowed them to exert their influence on places around the world. There was a great deal of competition between European powers to secure the resources of countries around the world. In Africa, virtually the entire continent was carved up by the European powers. The British Empire controlled almost one-third of the continent, and France, Belgium, Portugal, Spain, Germany and Italy all had extensive colonies.
The creation of these colonies often followed geographic features— rivers, mountains, lakes—but did not always take into account the culture or language of the people. Tribal groups could be divided among two or three countries, and some countries were created that contained tribal groups who were very different or even traditional enemies. In addition, there were often different roles and powers given to the various tribal groups which caused existing conflicts to become more deeply rooted and problematic.

With the collapse of these empires the colonies became independent countries based on the artificial borders created by the colonial powers. These divisions created tensions that have led to certain groups taking a dominant position at the expense of minority groups, or civil wars, or ongoing wars between different countries in attempts to gain power, people or land, or to offer protection to their tribal groups being persecuted in other countries.

The boundaries between countries are not always clearly defined, and in most cases almost impossible to defend or protect. People move freely over these borders, at times not even aware that they have crossed from one country to another. These borders are also not always recognized as legitimate, as allegiance to tribal members, who may live across a border, is seen as a stronger loyalty.

At times of conflict or crisis in one country, it is common for tens of thousands, or even hundreds of thousands, of refugees to seek shelter in a neighboring country. This influx of people creates political instability and taxes the very limited resources of the host country. There is virtually no country in Africa with the resources to adequately care for hundreds of thousands of refugees.