Women After All: Sex, Evolution, and the End of Male Supremacy (44 page)

93
Remade males stay by females:
Larry J. Young, Roger Nilsen, Katrina G. Waymire, Grant R. MacGregor, and Thomas R. Insel, “Increased Affiliative Response to Vasopressin in Mice Expressing the V1a Receptor from a Monogamous Vole,”
Nature
400, no. 6746 (2004): 766–68.

93
Miranda Lim and voles:
Miranda M. Lim, Zuoxin Wang, Daniel E. Olazabal, Xianghui Ren, Ernest F. Terwilliger, and Larry J. Young, “Enhanced Partner Preference in a Promiscuous Species by Manipulating the Expression of a Single Gene,”
Nature
429, no. 6993 (2004): 754–57.

93
Donaldson is exploring the same gene in primates:
Z. R. Donaldson, F. A. Kondrashov, A. Putnam, Y. Bai, T. L. Stoinski, E. A. Hammock, and L. J. Young, “Evolution of a Behavior-Linked Microsatellite-Containing Element in the 5' Flanking Region of the Primate AVPR1A Gene,”
BMC Evolutionary Biology
8 (2008): 180.

93
Chimpanzee males more dominant and less stable:
W. D. Hopkins, Z. R. Donaldson, and L. J. Young, “A Polymorphic Indel Containing the RS3 Microsatellite in the 5' Flanking Region of the Vasopressin V1a Receptor Gene Is Associated with Chimpanzee (
Pan troglodytes
) Personality,”
Genes, Brain, and Behavior
11, no. 5 (2012): 552–58.

93
the first research on the gene in wild chimpanzees:
Stephanie F. Anestis, Timothy H. Webster, Jason M. Kamilar, M. Babette Fontenot,
David P. Watts, and Brenda J. Bradley, “AVPR1A Variation in Chimpanzees (
Pan troglodytes
): Population Differences and Association with Behavioral Style,”
International Journal of Primatology
35, no. 1 (2014): 305–24.

94
Gene linked to partner loyalty in humans:
H. Walum and ten other authors, “Genetic Variation in the Vasopressin Receptor 1a Gene (AVPR1A) Associates with Pair-Bonding Behavior in Humans,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA
105, no. 37 (2008): 14153–56.

Chapter 4: Primate Possibilities

95
Lemurs:
Some of the first insights came from the pioneering study by Alison Jolly,
Lemur Behavior: A Madagascar Field Study
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966). See also her obituary in the
Economist,
accessed Sept. 13, 2014, at http://www.economist.com/news/obituary/21597862-alison-jolly-primatologist-died-february-6th-aged-76-alison-jolly.

96
Blue-eyed black lemurs:
L. Digby, and A. McLean Stevens, “Maintenance of Female Dominance in Blue-Eyed Black Lemurs (
Eulemur macaco flavifrons
) and Gray Bamboo Lemurs (
Hapalemur griseus griseus
) Under Semi-Free-Ranging and Captive Conditions,”
Zoo Biology
26, no. 5 (2007): 345–61.

96
Red-bellied vs. crowned lemurs:
B. Marolf, A. G. McElligott, and A. E. Muller, “Female Social Dominance in Two Eulemur Species with Different Social Organizations,”
Zoo Biology
26, no. 3 (2007): 201–14.

96
Ring-tailed lemurs:
C. M. Drea and A. Weil, “External Genital Morphology of the Ring-Tailed Lemur (
Lemur catta
): Females Are Naturally ‘Masculinized,’”
Journal of Morphology
269, no. 4 (2008): 451–63.

97
“Sex in the Dark”:
Manfred Eberle and Peter M. Kappeler, “Sex in the Dark: Determinants and Consequences of Mixed Male Mating Tactics in
Microcebus murinus
, a Small Solitary Nocturnal Primate,”
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
57, no. 1 (2004): 77–90.

97
females prefer males who defeat other males:
D. Gomez, E. Huchard, P. Y. Henry, and M. Perret, “Mutual Mate Choice in a Female-Dominant and Sexually Monomorphic Primate,”
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
147, no. 3 (2012): 370–79.

98
“Mouse
lemur females exert tight control”:
E. Huchard, C. I. Canale, C. Le Gros, M. Perret, P. Y. Henry, and P. M. Kappeler, “Convenience Polyandry or Convenience Polygyny? Costly Sex Under Female Control in a Promiscuous Primate,”
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
279, no. 1732 (2012): 1371.

98
a book intriguigingly called . . .:
Sarah Blaffer Hrdy,
The Woman That Never Evolved
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981).

99
a landmark study of langurs:
S. B. Hrdy,
The Langurs of Abu: Female and Male Strategies of Reproduction
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977).

100
“The Optimal Number of Fathers”:
S. B. Hrdy, “The Optimal Number of Fathers: Evolution, Demography, and History in the Shaping of Female Mate Preferences,”
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
907 (2000): 75–96.

100
marmosets give birth to twins routinely:
R. A. Harris and seven other authors, “Evolutionary Genetics and Implications of Small Size and Twinning in Callitrichine Primates,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA
111, no. 4 (2014): 1467–72; T. E. Ziegler, S. L. Prudom, and S. R. Zahed, “Variations in Male Parenting Behavior and Physiology in the Common Marmoset,”
American Journal of Human Biology
21, no. 6 (2009): 739–44.

101
Helpers who refrain from reproduction:
Jeffrey E. Fite, Kimberly J. Patera, Jeffrey A. French, Michael Rukstalis, Elizabeth C. Hopkins, and Corinna N. Ross, “Opportunistic Mothers: Female Marmosets (
Callithrix kuhlii
) Reduce Their Investment in Offspring When They Have to, and When They Can,”
Journal of Human Evolution
49, no. 1 (2005): 122–42.

101
Consider a pair of golden-white tassel-ear marmosets:
The description is based on the film
Gremlins: Faces in the Forest,
a 1998 co-production of Thirteen/WNET and Survival Anglia, part of the Nature Video Library. It was produced, written, and directed by Nick Gordon; the executive editor and host was George Page; and the scientific adviser was Dr. Marc van Roosmalen.

103
Baboon males ruled . . . through alliances:
Irven DeVore, “Male Dominance and Mating Behavior in Baboons,” in
Sexual Behavior
, ed. Frank Beach (New York: John Wiley, 1965), 266–89. See also a book edited by DeVore:
Primate Behavior
(New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1965).

103
the mother-infant relationship:
I. DeVore, “Mother-Infant Relations in Free-Ranging Baboons,” in
Maternal Behavior in Mammals
, ed. H. L. Rheingold (New York: John Wiley, 1963), 305–35.

104
Smuts’s remarkable book:
B. Smuts,
Sex and Friendship in Baboons
(New York, Aldine, 1985).

104
“agonistic buffering”:
A good place to start is Stefanie Henkel, Michael Heistermann, and Julia Fischer, “Infants as Costly Social Tools in Male Barbary Macaque Networks,”
Animal Behaviour
79, no. 6 (2010): 1199–1204.

105
a paper on male sexual force in primates:
B. B. Smuts and R. W. Smuts, “Male-Aggression and Sexual Coercion of Females in Nonhuman-Primates and Other Mammals: Evidence and Theoretical Implications,”
Advances in the Study of Behavior
22 (1993): 1–63.

105
Research gathered in a 2009 book:
Martin N. Muller and Richard W. Wrangham, eds.,
Sexual Coercion in Primates and Humans: An Evolutionary Perspective on Male Aggression Against Females
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009). Chapters include Cheryl Knott on orangutans, Martha Robbins on gorillas, Dawn Kitchen and her colleagues on chacma baboons, and Larissa Swedell and Amy Schreier on hamadryas baboons.

106
Spider monkey male “crashing through the canopy”:
K. N. Gibson, L. G. Vick, A. C. Palma, F. M. Carrasco, D. Taub, and G. Ramos-Fernandez, “Intra-community Infanticide and Forced Copulation in Spider Monkeys: A Multi-site Comparison Between Cocha Cashu, Peru, and Punta Laguna, Mexico,”
American Journal of Primatology
70, no. 5 (2008): 485–89. This and subsequent quotes in the passage are from p. 486.

106
over two years watching wild Sumatran orangs:
ElizaBeth Fox, “Female Tactics to Reduce Sexual Harassment in the Sumatran Orangutan (
Pongo pygmaeus abelii
),”
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
52, no. 2 (2002): 93–101.

107
When fertile, orang females actively sought mature males:
C. D. Knott, M. Emery Thompson, R. M. Stumpf, and M. H. McIntyre, “Female Reproductive Strategies in Orangutans, Evidence for Female Choice and Counterstrategies to Infanticide in a Species with Frequent Sexual Coercion,”
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
277, no. 1678 (2020): 105–13.

107
A rare case of sexual bullying in ring-tailed lemurs:
J. A. Parga and A. R. Henry, “Male Aggression During Mating: Evidence for Sexual Coercion in a Female Dominant Primate?”
American Journal of Primatology
70, no. 12 (2008): 1187–90.

108
four out of five Ph.D.s in primatology will go to women:
This estimate was reported in 2001 by Londa Schiebinger in
Has Feminism Changed Science?
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 91.

108
Jane Goodall’s pristine chimpanzees:
Jane van Lawick Goodall,
In the Shadow of Man
(New York, Dell, 1971).

109
Goodall’s scientific masterwork:
Jane Goodall,
The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986). See also her article “Infant Killing and Cannibalism in Free-Living Chimpanzees,”
Folia Primatologica
28, no. 4 (1977): 259–89.

109
John Mitani’s review:
John C. Mitani, “Cooperation and Competition in Chimpanzees: Current Understanding and Future Challenges,”
Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews
18, no. 5 (2009): 215–27. See also M. L. Wilson and 29 other authors, “Lethal Aggression in
Pan
Is Better Explained by Adaptive Strategies Than Human Impacts,”
Nature
513, no. 7518 (2014): 414–17.

110
Red colobus hunting by chimps:
Geza Teleki,
The Predatory Behavior of Wild Chimpanzees
(Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 1973); Craig B. Stanford,
The Hunting Apes: Meat Eating and the Origins of Human Behavior
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), 118.

110
Tolerated scrounging and human sharing:
N. G. Blurton Jones, “Tolerated Theft: Suggestions About the Ecology and Evolution of Sharing, Hoarding and Scrounging,”
Social Science Information sur les sciences sociales
26, no. 1 (1987): 31–54.

110
Meat for sex in a complex ape economy:
Cristina M. Gomes and Christophe Boesch, “Reciprocity and Trades in Wild West African Chimpanzees,”
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
65, no. 11 (2011): 2183–96.

111
Taï Forest females exercise choice:
R. M. Stumpf and C. Boesch, “The Efficacy of Female Choice in Chimpanzees of the Taï Forest, Côte d’Ivoire,”
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
60, no. 6 (2006): 749–65.

112
The bonobo genome was sequenced:
Kay Prüfer and forty other authors, “The Bonobo Genome Compared with the Chimpanzee and Human Genomes,”
Nature
486, no. 7404 (2012): 527–31.

112
As Adrienne Zihlman showed decades ago:
Adrienne L. Zihlman, J. E. Cronin, D. L. Cramer, and Vincent M. Sarich, “Pygmy Chimpanzee as a Possible Prototype for the Common Ancestor of Humans, Chimpanzees, and Gorillas,”
Nature
275 (1978): 744–46.

112
Bonobos “make love, not war”:
For an excellent documentary, see
The Last Great Ape,
produced and directed by Steve Greenwood for the BBC (2006) and then for NOVA/PBS/WGBH Educational Foundation (2007). For information, see http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/bonobos/. For scientific background, see Takayoshi Kano,
The Last Ape: Pygmy Chimpanzee Behavior and Ecology
(Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1992), and T. Furuichi, “Female Contributions to the Peaceful Nature of Bonobo Society,”
Evolutionary Anthropology
20, no. 4 (2011): 131–42.

114
Hohmann and Fruth studied conflicts related to mating:
Gottfried Hohmann and Barbara Fruth, “Aggression by Bonobos in the Context of Mating,”
Behaviour
140 (2003): 1389–1413.

115
a 2012 hormonal study of wild bonobos:
Martin Subeck, Tobias Deschner, Grit Schubert, Anja Weltring, and Gottfried Hohmann, “Mate Competition, Testosterone and Intersexual Relationships in Bonobos,
Pan paniscus
,”
Animal Behaviour
83, no. 3 (2012): 659–69.

115
sex between females
: Z. Clay, S. Pika, T. Gruber, and K. Zuberbuhler, “Female Bonobos Use Copulation Calls as Social Signals,”
Biology Letters
7, no. 4 (2011): 513–16; and Z. Clay, and K. Zuberbuhler, “Communication During Sex Among Female Bonobos: Effects of Dominance, Solicitation and Audience,”
Scientific Reports
2 (2012): 291.

116
The two species differ early in development:
V. Wobber, R. Wrangham, and B. Hare, “Bonobos Exhibit Delayed Development of Social Behavior and Cognition Relative to Chimpanzees,”
Current Biology
20, no. 3 (2010): 226–30; V. Woods and B. Hare, “Bonobo but Not Chimpanzee Infants Use Socio-sexual Contact with Peers,”
Primates
52, no. 2 (2011): 111–16; and Elisabetta Palagi and Giada Cordoni, “The Right Time to Happen: Play Developmental Divergence in the Two Pan Species,”
PLoS One
7, no. 12 (2012): e52767.