A History of the Roman World (80 page)

3
S
ICILIAN CORN
. See T. Frank,
Econ. Survey
, i, 158 ff.; H. Last,
CAH
, ix, 4.

4 A
RMY REFORMS
. Livy (i, 43, 1; viii, 8, 3) dates the adoption of the long
scutum
in place of the
clipeus
either to Servius Tullius or to
c.
400
BC
, while Sallust (
Catil.
, 51) and the
Ineditum Vaticanum
believe the Romans borrowed the
pilum
and
scutum
during struggles with the Samnites. The looser manipular system may have been introduced at the time of the siege of Veii (an operation for which the older phalanx formation was not suited: see Q. F. Maule and H. R. W. Smith,
Votive Religion at Caere
(1959), 22 ff.), but if so, it did not prove effective at Allia. The manipular formation is described by Livy (viii, 8) under the year 340, but since a rival Roman tradition (Plutarch,
Camillus
40) regards Camillus as a military reformer, some (e.g. L. Homo,
CAH
, vii, 568) believe that the reform was designed by Camillus against the Gauls. E. T. Salmon (
Samnium and the Samnites
, 105 ff.) prefers Camillus and the beginning of the fourth century, while F. E. Adcock
CAH
, vii, 596) argues for the Samnite Wars. On the literary sources for the pre-Marian army see E. Rawson,
PBSR
, 1971, 13 ff. On the earliest use of the cohort see M. J. V. Bell,
Historia
, 1965, 404 ff. and E. Rawson, op. cit. Most books on specialized aspects of the Roman army (e.g. H. M. D. Parker,
The Roman Legions
, edn 2 (1958)) deal only briefly with earlier periods and concentrate on the later Republic and Empire. An excellent picture book, elementary but reliable,
The Roman Army
(1975) by P. Connolly, well illustrates the formation and weapons of the pre-Marian army (and navy). Standard works include Kromayer-Veith,
Heerwesen und Kriegsführung der Griechen und Römer
(1928); P. Couissin,
Les armes romaines
(1926).

5
L
EGIONS IN BEING
. The fact that between 200 and 168
BC
there were normally eight legions in being (some 42,000 citizens under arms) shows that the standing armies of the Empire were foreshadowed: cf. R. E. Smith,
Service in the Post-Marian Army
(1958), ch. i. On the total number of troops involved see A. Afzelius,
Die römische Eroberung Italiens (340–264 v. Chr.
) (1942) and
Die röm. Kriegsmacht während der Auseinandersetzung mit den hellenistischen Grossmächten
(1944); P. A. Brunt,
Manpower
(1971), ch. xxiii.

6
O
STIA
. On early Ostia see R. Meiggs,
Roman Ostia
, edn 2 (1973), ch. 3.

7
M
INING
. If a senatorial decree which closed mining in Italy (Pliny,
Nat. Hist.
, xxxiii, 78) belongs to this period, it did not apparently apply to the iron of Elba. On mining in general see J. F. Healy,
Mining and Metallurgy in the Greek and Roman World
(1978).

8
S
HOP-KEEPERS
. The three different signatures on some pottery of
c.
200
BC
found in a deposit of ‘throw-outs’ from a kiln at Minturnae suggest that the potter was not an individual but a small syndicate or co-operative group:
Amer. J. Arch.
, 1934, 294.

9
R
OMAN COINAGE
. On the early coinage see R. Thomsen,
Early Roman Coinage
, 3 vols (1957–61); on Republican coinage in general see E. A. Sydenham,
Roman Republican Coinage
(1952), M. H. Crawford,
Roman Republican Coinage
(1974). Two wider surveys are H. Mattingly,
Roman Coins
, edn 2 (1962) and C. H. V. Sutherland,
Roman Coins
(1974). It is not possible here to enter into problems that have vexed the study of the early coinage, but there is now wider agreement about the date of its inception and that the
denarius
was introduced in 212/211
BC
. On the developments during the Hannibalic War see M. Crawford,
JRS
, 1964, 29 ff.; and for Hannibal’s and other coinage in Italy at this time see E. S. G. Robinson,
Num. Chron.
, 1964, 37 ff.

10
W
AR BUDGETS
. The figures given above for the First Punic War are those of T. Frank (
Econ Survey
, i, (1933), 61 ff.) who equates the cost of the war, some 100 million
denarii
, with 24 million American dollars of 1933. He includes the grain received by the allies, but it is probable that though Rome provided food and equipment for the allies, the cost of this (like that of the allied pay: Livy, xxvii, 9, 2) fell on the allies, who will have made an overall payment to Rome: see Polybius, vi, 39, and Walbank,
Polybius
, i, 722. For the Second Punic War see Frank, op. cit., 76 ff. The figures he gives are only put
forward as rough estimates which may give some idea of the relative scale of the various financial operations.

11
P
ROPERTY
. See De Sanctis,
SR
, III, ii, 623 ff. and Frank,
Econ. Survey
, 125 f. Land was worth perhaps 100
denarii
an acre in 200
BC
.

12
P
RICES
. See T. Frank
Econ. Survey
, i, 188 ff., 208 ff.

13
S
LAVERY
. On the revolting conditions in the mines see Strabo, iii, 147, and Diodorus, v, 36. In general see W. L. Westermann.
The Slave Systems of Greek and Roman Antiquity
(1955); P. A. Brunt,
JRS
, 1958, 164 ff.; M. I. Finley (ed),
Slavery in Classical Antiquity
(1960); J. Vogt,
Ancient Slavery
(1975).

14
F
AMILY LIFE AND SCHOOLING
. See J. P. V. D. Balsdon,
Life and Leisure in Ancient Rome
(1969), ch. iii; H. I. Marrou,
History of Education in Antiquity
(1958), 229 ff.; S. F. Bonner,
Education in Ancient Rome
(1977).

15
G
REEK INFLUENCES
. See G. Colin,
Rome et la Grèce
(1905), still a useful collection of material. He assigns the cause primarily to Rome. At the moment when social inequalities, pride and ambition corrupted the Romans, Greece supplied all manner of evil examples.

16
Cf A. Momigliano,
Alien Wisdom
(1975), 18 f.

17
T
HE CITY
. On the architecture of the early city see A. Boethius and J. B. Ward-Perkins,
Etruscan and Roman Architecture
(1970). On the individual buildings see S. B. Plainer and T. Ashby,
Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome
(1929) and the splendid complementary work, E. Nash,
Pictorial Dictionary of Ancient Rome, 2
vols (1961). See also G. Lugli,
Roma antica, Il centro monumentale
(1946) and
Fontes ad Topographiam Veteris Urbis Romanae Pertinentes
, 8 vols (1953–). D. R. Dudley,
Urbs Roma
(1967) is a source book of selected translated texts. Also M. Grant,
The Roman Forum
(1970). F. Coarelli, ‘Public Building at Rome from 201 to Sulla’,
PBSR
, 1977, 1 ff.

18
F
ORUM BOARIUM TEMPLES
. Hercules Victor: this round temple, near S. Maria in Cosmedin, was destroyed in 1475, when the cult image of gilded bronze was discovered. On the early temples of Fortuna and Mater Matuta see above, p. 000. Either one of the two later well-preserved temples, the pseudoperipteral Ionic, known as Fortuna Virilis, and the round temple known as Vesta or Mater Matuta, may have been dedicated to Portunus, the harbour god.

19
O
THER AVENTINE BUILDINGS
. These included temples to Mercury (495; here was held an annual festival of merchants,
mercatores
); Jupiter Liberias (dedicated by Ti. Sempronius in 238; his son placed there a picture of his victory at Beneventum in 214); Flora (240); Consus (built in 272 by L. Papirius Cursor whose portrait, as a triumphator, adorned the walls); Venus Obsequens (295, built from fines imposed on women convicted of adultery). On the Basilica Aemilia see Boethius and Ward-Perkins,
Etr. Rom. Architecture
, 107, E. Nash,
Vict. Diet. Anc. Rom.
, ii, 238 ff.

20
T
HE PALATINE
. Traces survive of the ‘Servian’ wall, or a contemporary but separate enceinte, in the north-west, and of a separate fort on the west and south sides (the so-called ‘wall of Romulus’). Other shrines included a temple of Jupiter Victor (vowed at Sentinum in 295) and an altar erected to Aius Locutus by the Senate in 390 because the Romans had disregarded a warning voice concerning the Gauls. On the temple of Magna Mater see
Arch. Labiale
, i, 1978, 67 ff.

21
V
ESTA AND THE REGIA
. The temple of Vesta contained no statue of the goddess; the foundations of the existing temple, one of the best-known monuments of the Forum, are Augustan. There are no traces of the Atrium Vestae before the second century
BC
. When the Regia was enlarged in the latter half of the third century it preserved the essential plan of its sixth-century predecessor: see F. E. Brown,
Les Origines de la Rép. Rom, Entretiens Hardt
, xiii (1966), 477 ff. (cf. p. 454 n. 14 above). The Via Sacra ran between the precincts of Vesta and the Regia.

22 T
HE ARX
. Other monuments include: Temple of Concord (216); Columna Rostrata in honour of M. Aemilius Paullus, consul in 255, destroyed in 172. The temple of Veiovis stood between the two summits of the Capitoline. It was discovered in 1939; the existing remains belong to a restoration of 78
BC
, but below the podium are traces of the first temple, vowed by L. Furius Purpureo in 194.

23
T
HE CAMPUS MARTIUS; FORUM HOLITORIUM
. Circus Flaminius: recent excavation and new fragments of the Severan marble plan of Rome have shown that its precise site was slightly different from that usually accepted in the past (see Nash,
Pict. Dict. Anc. Rome
, i, 232, with bibliography). Other temples were: Hercules Custos (
c.
221); Hercules Musarum (187; containing Fasti, and statues brought by Nobilior from Ambracia); Jupiter Stator (beneath S. Maria in Campitelli; built by Metellus
c.
146). Shrine of Fons, built with booty from Corsica, 231. Four temples were found in 1926–9 in a precinct of Republican date in the Largo Argentina. Their identification is uncertain, but now that the site of the Circus Flaminius has been settled (the temples were ‘in campo’ not ‘in circo’) fresh attempts at identification have been made: see
Roma medio repubblicana
(Catalogue of the Mostra of the Capitol, 1973): temple A, late, Juno Curitis (?); B, end of second century, aedes Catuli (?); C, fourth century, Feronia; D, beginning of second century, Lares Permarini (?). For photographs see Nash,
Pict. Dict.
, i, 136 ff. Forum Holitorium: Janus, built by Duilius after Mylae; Spes (First Punic War); Juno (194). A temple of Pietas, vowed by Glabrio at Thermopylae (191) contained a gilded statue of Glabrio, the first of its kind in Rome. On the Circus Flaminius see T. P. Wiseman,
PBSR
, 1974, 44 ff.

24
Q
UOTATIONS
. See F. de Zulueta,
The Legacy of Rome
(1923), 175; 186.

25 R
OMAN LAW
. See H. F. Jolowicz,
Historical Introduction to the Study of Roman Law
, edn 3 (1972), to which I am particularly indebted here; W. Kunkel,
Introduction to Roman Legal and Constitutional History
(1966); B. Nicolas,
Introduction to Roman Law
(1962); J. Crook,
Roman Law and Life
(1967); F. Schulz,
Principles of Roman Law
(1936),
History of Roman Legal Science
(1946),
Classical Roman Law
(1951); A. Berger,
Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law
(1951); A. Watson,
Roman Private Law around 200
BC. (1971), rather specialized, and
Rome of the XII Tables: persons and property
(1976).

1
L
ATIN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
. On the language see L. R. Palmer,
The Latin Language
(1954); A. Meillet,
Esquisse d’une histoire de la langue Latine
, edn 4 (1930). On literature: J. Wight Duff,
A Literary History of Rome from the Origins to Close of the Golden Age
, edn 3 (1953); T. Frank,
Life and Literature in the Roman Republic
(1930); H. J. Rose,
Handbook of Latin Literature
, edn 2 (1950); W. Beare,
The Roman Stage
, edn 2 (1955).

2
B
ALLAD POETRY
. See A. Momigliano,
JRS
, 1957, 104 ff. (=
Secondo Contrib.
, 69 ff.).

3
S
ATURNIAN VERSE
. The stock line comes from Naevius: ‘
Dabunt malum Metelli Naevio poetae
’. The question is still unsettled whether Saturnian verse is accentual, semi-quantitative, or quantitative. If accentual, based on the minstrel’s beat, the accent probably falls on the first, not on the second syllable (dábunt, málum), so that we must reject the famous example: ‘The queen was in her parlour, eating bread and honey’. The verse may then have been affected later by Greek quantitative scansion.

4
A
CTORS
. It is possible that this social stigma was a later phenomenon, and even then did not apply to all branches of acting alike. There was, however, little to stimulate the acting profession in Rome, so that later dramatists often acted in their own plays. By 200
BC
only six days were set apart for dramatic performances. Drama had no religious
associations in Rome as in Greece. Atellan farces may perhaps have derived from the Dorian farces of Magna Graecia.