Augustus (60 page)

PREFACE

“most events began”
Dio 53 19 3.

INTRODUCTION

The introduction is an imagined narration of Augustus’ death. I take as my premise the proposition that the sometimes extraordinary stories told by the ancient sources are broadly correct, and attempt as satisfactory an explanation as possible. My central assumption is that the regime was, over-whelmingly and rightly, determined to effect as painless a transition as possible from Augustus to his successor. I note that the regime’s obsession with maintaining its power was accompanied by an undeviating patriotism and a willingness to sacrifice personal interests. Although there are problems and implausibilities with the stories, the explanation I offer is, just about, credible. This is how it might have happened. I use Suetonius’
Life of Augustus,
especially chapters 97 to 100; Tacitus 15, 6; Dio 56 29–30; Velleius 2102, 123.

“Poor Rome”
Suet Tib 21 2.

I. SCENES FROM A PROVINCIAL CHILDHOOD

The main ancient sources for this chapter are Suetonius and Nicolaus. The stories classical writers tell of the childhood of famous men are unreliable. That of Augustus is no exception. Children were of little intrinsic interest to Roman adults and their doings were seldom recorded, so historians devised fictional beginnings appropriate to their subjects’ later lives and propaganda needs. I have tried to weed out obviously legendary material (to which I return when dealing with the period when it was probably invented). Nicolaus knew Augustus, who may have been the source of the more day-to-day events of his early life.

“coin-stained hands”
Suet Aug 42.

“came from a rich old equestrian family”
Ibid., 23.

bad prognosis
This story, told with circumstantial detail in Dio 45 1, may be a later invention by historians and biographers wishing to create an appropriately interesting childhood for Augustus.

“a small room”
Suet Aug 6.

“a dignified person”
Vell Pat 2592.

“a talking instrument”
Varro 117.

“I can prove”
Suet Aug 71.

“justly and courageously”
Ibid., 32.

many health hazards
This paragraph draws on Jackson, especially pp. 37, 42–43, 46.

by his maternal grandmother
Nic 3.

Atia won a reputation
Ibid.

“We must apply to our fellow-countrymen”
Cic De Or 3137.

“There was not a great difference”
Castle, p. 129.

“a good man skilled in speech”
Quint Inst Or 12 1.

“humble origin”
Suet Gaius 23 1.

He may have come from Venetia
Syme AA p. 44.

According to Aulus Gellius
Aul Gell 16 16 1–4.

born in this perilous manner
Pliny 745.

II. THE GREAT-UNCLE

Most of the personal characteristics I ascribe to Julius Caesar, Pompey, Crassus, Cato, and Mark Antony are drawn from the accounts given in Plutarch and Suetonius. Again Nicolaus is useful. Caesar’s own history of the civil war is accurate but self-serving. Appian is valuable.

“From now onward”
Vell Pat 233.

optimates
I use the English form, for the Latin word can only be used in the plural.

“His dress was”
Suet Caes 45 3.

“It was really very difficult”
Plut Cat Min 12.

“That cannot be true”
Ibid., 19 4.

“Caesar was the only sober man”
Suet Caes 53.

“in common with Antony’s”
Plut Ant 25.

“provoked by the sight of her”
App 58.

“for he often helped others”
Plut Ant 43.

they quietly sent Gaius
Nic 4.

“Let the dice fly high!”
Plut Pomp 60 2.

“the new style of conquest”
Cic Att 174c (97c).

“He does not know”
Suet Caes 36.

III. A POLITICAL MASTER CLASS

Nicolaus remains a source for anecdotes about Gaius. Plutarch’s and Suetonius’ lives of Caesar throw light on Caesar’s activities, as do Appian and the commentaries on the Alexandrian war and the African war, written by Caesarian supporters. Plutarch’s life of Cato recounts his suicide. Here and elsewhere I am indebted to Michael Grant’s
Cleopatra
.

“I shall have the whole Senatorial”
Dio 45 2 5–6.

“with body and limbs”
Suet Aug 79 2.

“He attracted many women”
Nic 4.

“he was of age”
Ibid.

“The year/Drags for orphan boys”
Hor Ep 1121–22.

Alexander the Great’s Macedonian commanders
For more on Alexander, see Green, Peter,
Alexander of Macedon
(London: Penguin, 1974), and on his successors the same author’s
Alexander to Actium
(London: Thames and Hudson, 1990).

“this little trick”
Plut Caes 49 2.

“As far as they say”
Plut Ant 27 2–3.

“Many rulers of Egypt”
Plut Ant 27 3–4.

“enjoyed himself”
App 290. Some modern historians discount the historicity of this jaunt, largely on the grounds that Caesar would not be so irresponsible. However, one of the features of his character was an arrogant carelessness. Also, Appian says that he provides more detail (now sadly lost) of this adventure in his Egyptian history, from which it is reasonable to assume that the journey was well attested.

“for a sight of the boy”
Nic 4.

“he might bring on illness”
Ibid., 6.

attitude toward suicide
This section is indebted to van Hoof.

“had hard work to withstand”
Caes Gall 61.

“take any cruel action”
Dio 43 15 2.

“The Republic is nothing”
Suet Caes 77.

IV. UNFINISHED BUSINESS

Appian and Dio provide the basic historical narrative, Nicolaus, Plutarch, and Suetonius color and anecdote.

On the day of the triumph
Some generic details are taken from Plutarch’s description of Aemilius Paullus’ triumph (Plut Aem Pau 32–35).

The most popular attraction
This section is indebted to Carcopino, Grant Glad, and Meijer.

“He took care”
Nic 8.

“according to my uncle’s instructions”
Ibid., 10.

“I have often fought”
Plut Caes 56 3.

“He made a point”
Nic 11.

“nothing womanly about her”
Vell Pat 2742.

It is probable that Octavius
When Nicolaus reports that he asked for, and received, permission to go home and see his mother, he does not make it clear where Octavius was at the time of the request. It would make more sense if he was at Labici than en route to Italy (otherwise, why would he have asked leave to go to his journey’s obvious destination?).

“sexual gratification”
Nic 15.

“should sail”
Celsus 111. It is worth noting that in later life, Octavius lived abstemiously, a habit that may well have been developed in his youth.

V. A BOY WITH A NAME

Nicolaus gives most information about Octavian’s stay at Apollonia and his return to Italy. He, Plutarch, and Suetonius give accounts of the Ides of March.

“great and important city”
Cic Phil 11 26.

“You must show yourself”
Nic 16.

another letter from Atia
The implication when App 39–10 and Nic 16 are compared suggests that Atia wrote with the immediate news and then followed up with a second letter from her and Philippus; but the references could be to the same letter.

knew that the assassination
Plut Ant 13 1.

“Why, this is violence!”
Suet Caes 82 1.

like a wild animal
App 2117.

“already had his eyes”
Nic 18.

“followers call him Caesar”
Cic Att 366 (14 12).

major eruption
R. Stothers, 2002: “Cloudy and Clear Stratospheres Before
A.D.
1000 Inferred from Written Sources,”
J. Geophysical Research,
Vol. 107, No. D23.

“wars that grow in the dark”
Virg Geo 464–68.

stars could be seen
Pliny 22798.

“everything to his name”
Cic Phil 13 11 25.

“Heap as many insults”
App 328.

“Could anything be”
Cic Att 388 15 10.

“Octavian…does not lack”
Ibid., 3901512.

“On the very day”
Pliny 22393–94. Octavian wrote his autobiography, now lost, in 25
B.C.
The discussion of the games is indebted to J. Ramsey and A. Lewis Licht,
The Comet of 44
B.C
. and Caesar’s Funeral Games
(Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997), pp. 236f.

“Mad with anger”
This paragraph and the following, including the quotations, are drawn from App 339.

VI. FROM VICTORY, DEFEAT

Appian’s and Cicero’s speeches against Antony, the Philippics, are the best sources. Dio also covers the subject.

“You will learn”
App 343.

“He is very much a boy”
Cic Att 420 (16 11).

“a blowout”
Cic Phil 3820.

“If your are successful”
Macr 23 12.

“The Ides of March was a fine deed”
Cic Att 366 (14 12).

“Gaius Caesar is a young man”
Cic Phil, 323.

“this heaven-sent youth”
Ibid., 51643.

“I promise, I undertake”
Ibid., 18 51.

“praised, honoured—and raised up”
Cic Fam 401 11 20.

“He reflected on the way”
App 364.

In the first week or so of April
My description seeks to reconcile differences among the sources—App 366–72, Cic Fam 378 10 30, and Dio 37–38.

“they put the survivors”
App 370.

“He did not reappear”
Suet Aug 10 4.

“Though bleeding and wounded”
Ibid., 10 4.

“It is quite incredible”
Cic Brut 12 2 (1 6 2).

“Nature forbids me”
App 373.

“I have given plenty of hints”
Ibid., 380.

“this abominable war”
Cic Fam 384 10 14.

“spineless readiness to serve”
App 392.

twelve vultures
It can be argued that this story is a fiction put about by Octavian’s propagandists. It seems unlikely, though, that such a public event was invented when thousands of Romans could give it the lie.

VII. KILLING FIELDS

Appian provides a detailed narrative, and Dio also covers this period. Plutarch and Suetonius evoke the impact of Philippi on individuals. The discussion of Sextus Pompeius is indebted to
Sextus Pompeius,
Anton Powell and Kathryn Welch, eds.

“he carried it out more ruthlessly”
Suet Aug 27 1.

he let his own uncle
Plut Ant Comp 51.

“Many people were murdered”
App 413.

One tragic tale
Ibid., 430.

A funerary inscription Laudatio Turiae,
ILS.

“You provided abundantly”
Ibid., 2a.

A year later
That is, after the battle of Philippi.

“That matter was soon” Laudatio Turiae
11, ILS.

“I did not take my father’s line”
Suet Aug 70 2.

still a very young man
App 5133. For Sextus’ age, see Powell/Welch, pp. 105–6.

“Whoever makes his journey”
Quoted, from an unidentified play, by App 285.

“With his greater mobility”
Ibid., 483.