Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution (67 page)

27. Etienne Polverel, “Proclamation relative à la liberté générale différée,”

Port-au-Prince, September 4, 1793; “Proclamation aux Africains et descen-

dants d’Africains,” September 10, 1793; “Proclamation relative à l’émancipation des esclaves appartenant à l’Etat dans la province de l’Ouest,” September 21, 1793; “Proclamation relative à l’émancipation des esclaves appartenant à l’Etat dans la province du Sud,” Les Cayes, October 7, 1793; “Proclamation relative à la liberté générale,” October 31, 1793; reprinted in Debien, “Aux origines,” 356–387.

28. Proclamation of Sonthonax, August 29, 1793, in Debien, “Aux origines,”

348–356; Beaubrun Ardouin,
Etudes sur l’histoire d’Haïti,
11 vols. (1853–1865; reprint, Port-au-Prince, 1958), 3:101.

29. Etienne Polverel, “Proclamation relative à la liberté générale,” October 31, 1793, in Debien, “Aux origines,” 372–387.

30. Geggus,
Slavery, War and Revolution,
65–66, 107–108.

31. Ibid., 125, 395–399; Lacroix,
Révolution de Haiti,
173–177.

32. Geggus,
Slavery, War and Revolution,
66, 109; Madiou,
Histoire d’Haiti,
1:205–211; Geggus,
Slavery,
109.

33. Madiou,
Histoire d’Haiti,
1:234–236; Geggus,
Haitian Revolutionary Studies,
78, 124.

34. Madiou,
Histoire d’Haiti,
1:232–233; Lacroix,
Révolution de Haiti,
186–

188; “Notes divers d’Isaac sur la vie de Toussaint-Louverture,” in Antoine Métral,
Histoire de l’expédition des Français à Saint-Domingue
(1825; reprint, Paris, 1985), 333.

35. Gauthier, “Le Rôle de la députation,” 200–211, 204; “Procès verbal de

l’Assemblée électorale des deputés du nord de St. Domingue,” September 23,

1793, C181, 84, AN.

330

n o t e s t o p a g e s 1 6 1 – 1 6 8

36.
Lettre écrite à New York par les députés de Saint-Domingue, à leurs

commetans, imprimée par ordre de la Convention Nationale
(Paris, 1794), 3–9.

37. M. J. Mavidal and M. E. Laurent, eds.,
Archives parlementaires de 1787 à
1860, première série (1787–1799)
(Paris, 1962), 84:276–285.

38. Madiou,
Histoire d’Haiti,
1:226–228.

8 . t h e o p e n i n g

1. Gabriel Debien, Jean Fouchard, and Marie Antoinette Menier, “Toussaint

Louverture avant 1789: Légendes et réalités,”
Conjonction
134 (June–July 1977): 68, 73–74; Stewart King, “Toussaint L’Ouverture before 1791: Free Planter and Slave-Holder,”
Journal of Haitian Studies
3 and 4 (1997–98): 68; David Geggus,
Haitian Revolutionary Studies
(Bloomington, 2002), 230.

2. Debien, Fouchard, and Menier, “Toussaint Louverture,” 67; C. L. R. James,

The Black Jacobins: Toussaint Louverture and the San Domingo Revolution
(1938; reprint, New York, 1963), 25; “Notes divers d’Isaac sur la vie de Toussaint-Louverture,” in Antoine Métral,
Histoire de l’expédition des Français à Saint-Domingue
(1825; reprint, Paris, 1985), 325–326; Geggus,
Haitian Revolutionary
Studies,
16.

3. “Notes divers d’Isaac,” 331; “Extrait de l’esquisse historique légendaire et descriptive de la Ville de Pontarlier et du Fort de Joux par Edouard Girou,” N.A.

6894, 22–26, Bibliothéque Nationale (hereafter BN); Geggus,
Haitian Revolutionary Studies,
127.

4. Pamphile de Lacroix,
La Révolution de Haiti
(1819; reprint, Paris, 1995), 244, 354; Geggus,
Haitian Revolutionary Studies,
16, 19; James,
Black Jacobins,
418.

5. Lacroix,
Révolution de Haiti,
245, 355.

6. Madison Smartt Bell,
Master of the Crossroads
(New York, 2000); in Haitian Vodou the crossroads are the symbolic site where the
lwa
(gods) intersect with the living.

7. Victor Schoelcher,
Vie de Toussaint Louverture
(1889; reprint, Paris, 1982), 94–95; James,
Black Jacobins,
125; Geggus,
Haitian Revolutionary Studies,
127.

8. Bramante Lazzary to Toussaint Louverture, D XXV 23, 231, no. 96, AN.

9. Geggus,
Haitian Revolutionary Studies,
125; James,
Black Jacobins,
124–125.

10. Toussaint Louverture to General Laveaux, May 18, 1794, in Gérard Laurent,
Toussaint Louverture à travers sa correspondence, 1794–1798
(Madrid, 1953), 103–107; Laurent’s work reprints the correspondence between Louverture and

Laveaux, along with some other documents, in Manuscrits Occidentaux, 12101–03, BN. The sleight-of-hand was the work of T. Gragnon-Lacoste, in
Toussaint

Louverture
(Paris, 1877); see Geggus,
Haitian Revolutionary Studies,
126; Schoelcher,
Vie de Toussaint Louverture,
98–100; James,
Black Jacobins,
125–126.

n o t e s t o p a g e s 1 6 9 – 1 7 7

331

11. Geggus,
Haitian Revolutionary Studies,
128; idem,
Slavery, War and Revolution: The British Occupation of Saint-Domingue, 1793–1798
(Oxford, 1982), 108.

12. Geggus,
Haitian Revolutionary Studies,
133.

13. Laplace, “député des émigrés Français,” to “son excellence,” April 4, 1794, 12102, 55, BN; Pierre Pluchon,
Toussaint Louverture
(Paris, 1989), 101–102; Schoelcher,
Vie de Toussaint Louverture,
97; Geggus,
Haitian Revolutionary
Studies,
121.

14. Geggus,
Haitian Revolutionary Studies,
122–123, 135–136.

15. Ibid., 123–124; Jean-Philippe Garran-Coulon,
Rapport sur les troubles de
Saint-Domingue
(Paris, 1798–99), 4:298–300; Louverture to Laveaux, May 18, 1794, in Laurent,
Louverture,
103–107; Pluchon,
Toussaint Louverture,
99–100; Carolyn Fick,
The Making of Haiti: The Saint-Domingue Revolution from Below
(Knoxville, 1990), 184.

16. Geggus,
Slavery, War and Revolution,
114, 118; Louverture to Laveaux, July 7, 1794, in Laurent,
Louverture,
118–120.

17. Beaucorps to Rodrigue, July 9, 1794, 12102, 92–94, BN; Geggus,
Slavery,
War and Revolution,
119; idem,
Haitian Revolutionary Studies,
176, 180.

18. Robert Louis Stein,
Légér Félicité Sonthonax: The Lost Sentinel of the Republic
(London, 1985), 104.

19. Proclamation by Laveaux to the Inhabitants of Saint-Marc, September 12,

1794, in Laurent,
Louverture,
130–133; Geggus,
Slavery, War and Revolution,
121, 126–128.

20. Louverture to Laveaux, July 7, 1794, in Laurent,
Louverture,
118–120; Geggus,
Slavery, War and Revolution,
128.

21. Louverture to Laveaux, October 4, 1794, in Laurent,
Louverture,
133–136.

22. Geggus,
Slavery, War and Revolution,
122, 128–129, 150–154; Thomas Madiou,
Histoire d’Haiti
(1847–48; reprint, Port-au-Prince, 1989), 1:266–268.

23. Louverture to Laveaux, October 21, 1794, and January 7, 1795, in Laurent,
Louverture,
137–138 and 145–147; Schoelcher,
Vie de Toussaint Louverture,
108, 113–117.

24. Pluchon,
Toussaint Louverture,
134–135.

25. The letter is attached to Louverture to Laveaux, June 18, 1795, and re-

printed in Laurent,
Louverture,
181–183.

26. Louverture to Laveaux, October 5, October 28, and November 8, 1795, in

Laurent,
Louverture,
237–239, 249, 253–255; Jean-François to Laveaux, December 28, 1794, 12102, 162, BN.

27. Geggus,
Slavery, War and Revolution,
182; idem,
Haitian Revolutionary
Studies,
179–203; Jane Landers, “Rebellion and Royalism in Spanish Florida,” in
A
Turbulent Time: The French Revolution and the Greater Caribbean,
ed. David Barry Gaspar and David Geggus (Bloomington, 1997), 156–171.

332

n o t e s t o p a g e s 1 7 7 – 1 8 3

28. Louverture to Laveaux, August 31 and September 14, 1795, 12103, 128 and

218, BN; in Laurent,
Louverture,
222–232; Schoelcher,
Vie de Toussaint
Louverture,
142–144; Geggus,
Slavery, War and Revolution,
165.

29. Louverture to Laveaux, September 30 and December 7, 1795, 12103, 237

and 368, BN; in Laurent,
Louverture,
233–236, 271–272; Schoelcher,
Vie de
Toussaint Louverture,
121–122; Lacroix,
Révolution de Haiti,
214.

30. Fick,
Making of Haiti,
168–169; Etienne Polverel, “Réglement sur les proportions du travail et de la récompense,” February 7, 1794, in Gabriel Debien,

“Aux origines de l’abolition de l’esclavage,”
Revue d’Histoire des Colonies
36 (3ème and 4ème trimestres 1949): 391–402.

31. Fick,
Making of Haiti,
170; Judith Kafka, “Action, Reaction, and Interaction: Slave Women and Resistance in the South of Saint-Domingue, 1793–94,”

Slavery and Abolition
18 (August 1997): 48–49, 54.

32. Fick,
Making of Haiti,
171; Kafka, “Action, Reaction, and Interaction,” 60.

33. Fick,
Making of Haiti,
172–173.

34. Louverture to Laveaux, July 19, 1794, 12102, 95, BN; in Laurent,

Louverture,
121–124.

35. Schoelcher,
Vie de Toussaint Louverture,
109.

36. Ibid., 127–129; Proclamation of Louverture, March 22, 1795; Louverture to Laveaux, June 17, June 26, and September 14, 1795, 12103, 95, 117, and 218, BN; in Laurent,
Louverture,
171–173, 183–188, 228–232.

37. Louverture to Laveaux, September 14, 1795, 12103, 218, BN; in Laurent,

Louverture,
228–232; Schoelcher,
Vie de Toussaint Louverture,
145–146; Geggus,
Haitian Revolutionary Studies,
23.

38. Louverture to Laveaux, August 6 and September 14, 1795, 12103, 193 and

218, BN; in Laurent,
Louverture,
213–219, 228–232; Pluchon,
Toussaint Louverture,
421.

39. Louverture to Laveaux, January 31 and June 17, 1795, 12103, 16 and 95,

BN; in Laurent,
Louverture,
157–161 and 183–186; Schoelcher,
Vie de Toussaint
Louverture,
129. There has been surprisingly little research into the details of how Louverture’s work policies were applied, and resisted, on the plantations.

40. Procés-verbal de Toussaint Louverture, 1 Ventôse An 4 (February 20, 1796), in Laurent,
Louverture,
314–315, 316.

41. Ibid., 317–318.

42. Louverture, “Proclamation,” April 25, 1796, ibid., 380–385.

43. Procés-verbal of Louverture, February 20, 1796, and Louverture to Laveaux, May 11, 1796, 12104, 230, BN; in Laurent,
Louverture,
385–387.

44. Lacroix,
Révolution de Haiti,
201; Marquis de Condorcet,
Réflexions sur
l’esclavage des Nègres,
2d ed. (Paris, 1788).

45. Odette Menesson-Rigaud Papers, box 1, folder 7/8, no. 74, Bibliothéque

Haitïenne, Port-au-Prince.

n o t e s t o p a g e s 1 8 4 – 1 9 3

333

9 . p o w e r

1. Jean-Baptiste Belley,
Le Bout d’oreille des colons où le système de l’Hotel de
Massiac, mis au jour par Gouli
(Paris, 1795).

2. Darcy Grimaldo Grigsby,
Extremities: Painting Empire in Revolutionary

France
(New Haven, 2002), 52.

3. Belley,
Le Bout d’oreille.

4. Ibid.; Grigsby,
Extremities,
53.

5. Speech of Defermont and Decree of the National Convention, July 23, 1795,

in Gérard Laurent,
Toussaint Louverture à travers sa correspondence, 1794–1798

(Madrid, 1953), 244–247.

6.
Débats entre les accusateurs et les accusés dans l’affaire des colonies
(Paris, 1795).

7. Florence Gauthier, “La Convention thermidorienne et le problème coloniale, Septembre 1794–Septembre 1795,” in
Le Tournant de l’an III: Réaction et terreur
blanche dans la France révolutionnaire,
ed. Michel Vovelle (Paris, 1997), 109–119, 113–115; Victor Schoelcher,
Vie de Toussaint Louverture
(1889; reprint, Paris, 1982), 177.

8. Schoelcher,
Vie de Toussaint Louverture,
119.

9. Carolyn Fick,
The Making of Haiti: The Saint-Domingue Revolution from Below
(Knoxville, 1990), 186–188; Beaubrun Ardouin,
Etudes sur l’histoire d’Haïti,
11 vols. (1853–1865; reprint, Port-au-Prince, 1958), 3:81.

10. Fick,
Making of Haiti,
185–187.

11. David Geggus,
Slavery, War and Revolution: The British Occupation in

Saint-Domingue, 1793–1798
(Oxford, 1982), 183–184.

12. Louverture to Laveaux, February 12, 1796, in Schoelcher,
Vie de Toussaint
Louverture,
136–137.

13. Ibid., 138–139; Fick,
Making of Haiti,
188.

14. Geggus,
Slavery, War and Revolution,
180; Louverture to Laveaux, April 26

and June 18, 1795, in Laurent,
Louverture,
175–177, 179–181.

15. Louverture to Laveaux, July 2, 1795, and January 19, 1796, ibid., 189–192.

16. Pierre Pluchon,
Toussaint Louverture
(Paris, 1989), 121; Ardouin,
Etudes
sur l’histoire d’Haïti,
3:28; Laurent,
Louverture,
173–174.

17. Laurent,
Louverture,
349–354; Thomas Madiou,
Histoire d’Haiti
(1847–48; reprint, Port-au-Prince, 1989), 1:303–304.

18. Pluchon,
Toussaint Louverture,
118–119; Schoelcher,
Vie de Toussaint
Louverture,
159; Laurent,
Louverture,
355–357.

19. Laurent,
Louverture,
358; Pluchon,
Toussaint Louverture,
128; Madiou,
Histoire d’Haiti,
1:305–306.

20. Henry Perroud,
Précis des derniers troubles qui ont eu lieu dans la partie du
Nord de Saint-Domingue
(Le Cap, 1796), 2–4.