Chinese Comfort Women (37 page)

6
Dai Sil Kim-Gibson,
Silence Broken: Korean Comfort Women
(Parkersburg: Mid-Prairie Books, 2000); Sangmie Choi Schellstede, ed.
Comfort Women Speak: Testimony by Sex Slaves of the Japanese Military
(New York: Holmes and Meier, 2000); and Nelia Sancho, ed.
War Crimes on Asian Women: Military Sexual Slavery by Japan during World War II; The Case of the Filipino Comfort Women
(Manila: Asian Women Human Rights Council, 1998).

7
See, for example, Yoshimi,
Comfort Women
(English translation [2000] of the 1995 Japanese book); Hicks,
Comfort Women;
David A. Schmidt,
Ianfu: The Comfort Women of the Japanese Imperial Army of the Pacific War – Broken Silence
(Lewiston: Edwin Mellon Press, 2000); Margaret Stetz and Bonnie B.C. Oh, eds.
Legacies of the Comfort Women of World War II
(Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2001); Yuki Tanaka,
Japan’s Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery and Prostitution during World War II and the US Occupation
(New York: Routledge, 2002); and Soh,
Comfort Women
.

8
I have borrowed the term “memory change” from Carol Gluck’s “Operations of Memory: ‘Comfort Women’ and the World,” in
Ruptured Histories: War, Memory, and the Post-Cold War in Asia
, ed. Sheila Miyoshi Jager and Rana Mitter, 47-77 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007). My discussion here is inspired by her work.

9
Hirofumi Hayashi, “Disputes in Japan over the Japanese Military ‘Comfort Women’ System and Its Perception in History,”
Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Science
617 (2008): 123-32.

10
For more detailed information on English publications on the subject, see Soh,
Comfort Women
, 46-56.

11
Japan Times
online, 11 March 2007, available at
http://www.japantimes.co.jp
. For a summary of the disputes in Japan over the comfort women system, see Hayashi, “Disputes in Japan.”

12
For major publications of this perspective, see Fujioka Nobukatsu,
Jigyakushikan no byōri
[An analysis of the masochistic views of history] (Tokyo: Bungeishunjū, 1997); and Hata Ikuhiko,
Ianfu to senjō no sei
[Comfort women and sex in the battle-field] (Tokyo: Shinchōsha, 1999).

13
Nicola Henry,
War and Rape: Law, Memory and Justice
(London: Routledge, 2011), 51.

14
Soh,
Comfort Women
, 235-36. The characterizations she quotes are from Yoshimi,
Comfort Women
, 66; and Tanaka,
Japan’s Comfort Women
, 173.

15
Soh,
Comfort Women
, 235.

16
Ibid., xii-xiii.

17
A few cases of Dutch, Philippine, Indonesian, and Chinese comfort women are mentioned very briefly, but the author’s arguments are based primarily on the experiences of Korean and Japanese comfort women.

18
Su Zhiliang,
Weianfu yanjiu
[A study of the comfort women] (Shanghai: Shanghai shudian chubanshe, 1999), 275-79.

19
Many researchers have revealed that the Japanese military destroyed its own documents at the end of the Second World War, including those concerning the operation of comfort stations. Among these researchers, Yoshimi Yoshiaki conducted extensive investigations in
Jūgun ianfu
(Tokyo: Iwanami shoten,1995). In his 1995 article, “Korean Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan,” Chin Sung Chung also cites recently uncovered documents to demonstrate that the Japanese military not only secretly operated the comfort women system but also instructed soldiers to destroy records at the end of the war. See Keith Howard, ed.,
True Stories of the Korean Comfort Women
(New York: Cassell, 1995), 11. For evidence of the murder of Chinese comfort women by the Japanese military at the end of the war, see
Part 1
of this book.

20
Diana Lary and Stephen MacKinnon, eds.
Scars of War: The Impact of Warfare on Modern China
(Vancouver: UBC Press, 2001), 3-4.

21
An abbreviated term for the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, a political movement initiated by the leader of the CCP, Mao Zedong, from 1966 to 1976. The political power struggles between rival factions during the movement brought the whole nation into social and economic chaos. Tens of thousands of people were persecuted, abused, or died, and Chinese people have since referred to the movement as “ten years of catastrophe” (
shinian haojie
).

22
For a brief summary of the varied estimations of the numbers of comfort women, see Yoshimi,
Jūgun ianfu
, 78-81; Hata,
Ianfu to senjō no sei
, 397-407; and Soh,
Comfort Women
, 23-24. Yoshimi reports an estimated range of between 50,000 to 200,000.

23
Su Zhiliang,
Weianfu yanjiu
, 275-79.

24
Cited in Yuma Totani,
The Tokyo War Crimes Trial: The Pursuit of Justice in the Wake of World War II
(Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center, 2008), 126-27.

25
See, for example, Kasahara Tokushi, “Chūgoku sensen ni okeru Nihongun no seihanzai: Kahokushō, Sanseishō no jirei” [The Japanese army’s sexual crimes at the frontlines in China: The cases of Hebei and Shanxi Provinces],
Sensō sekinin kenkyū
[Studies of war responsibilities] 13 (1996): 2-11; and Su Zhiliang, Rong Weimu, and Chen Lifei, eds.,
Taotian zuinie: Erzhan shiqi de Rijun weianfu zhidu
[Monstrous atrocities: The Japanese military comfort women system during the Second World War] (Shanghai: Xuelin chubanshe, 2000).

26
These statistics are based on Su Zhiliang’s record and do not include cases recorded by other Chinese researchers and institutions.

27
Tomishima Kenji, “Inu” [Dog], in
Sankō: Kanzenban
[The three alls: A complete collection], comp., Chūgoku kikansha renrakukai, 102-8 (Tokyo: Banseisha, 1984).

28
Soh,
Comfort Women
, 117.

29
Yoshimi,
Jūgun ianfu
, 74.

30
Tanaka,
Japan’s Comfort Women
, 18-19.

31
Soh,
Comfort Women
, 117-32.

32
Ibid., 117-18.

33
Ibid., 118 and 134.

34
Ibid., 235-36.

35
One of the cases, for example, is reported by Guan Wenhua, “Rijun dui Beipiao funü de lingru” [Japanese troops’ sexual violence against women in Beipiao], in
Qin-Hua Rijun baoxing zonglu
[Collection of investigative records of the atrocities committed by the Japanese forces during Japan’s invasion of China], ed. Li Bingxin, Xu Junyuan, and Shi Yuxin, 69 (Shijiazhuang: Hebei renmin chubanshe, 1995).

36
Su Zhiliang’s investigative record. See also Wang Yufeng, “Scholars Propose Memorializing ‘Comfort Stations’: The Ravages of Time,”
Global Times
, 22 September 2011.

37
Fu Heji, “Qin-Qiong Rijun ‘weianfu’ shilu” [The reality of the Japanese military “comfort women” in Hainan], in Su et al.,
Taotian zuinie
, 188. The article was originally published in
Kang-Ri Zhanzheng yanjiu
, 1996 (4): 34-50.

38
For more detailed information on the conditions in which Chinese comfort women were confined, see
Part 1
of this book.

39
Soh,
Comfort Women
, xvi.

40
A political advisory body in China, which consists of delegates from a range of political parties and organizations as well as independent members.

41
Zhang Jiliang, “Weishan Hong: Wei Zhongguo zhanzheng shouhaizhe daili susong 40 nian” [Oyama Hiroshi: Forty years of representing Chinese war victims’ litigations]
Renmin ribao haiwaiban
, 7 July 2005.

Chapter 1: Japan’s Aggressive War and the Military “Comfort Women” System

1
Mark R. Peattie, “The Dragon’s Seed: Origins of the War,” in
The Battle for China: Essays on the Military History of the Sino-Japanese War of 1937-1945
, ed. Mark Peattie, Edward J. Drea, and Hans van de Ven (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2011), 48-78.

2
Yoshihisa Tak Matsusaka,
The Making of Japanese Manchuria (1904-1932
) (Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center, 2001), 1-16.

3
Peattie, “Dragon’s Seed,” 66.

4
Matsusaka,
Making of Japanese Manchuria
, 381-87.

5
Peattie, “Dragon’s Seed,” 66-67. See also, Ienaga Saburō,
The Pacific War: World War II and the Japanese, 1932-1945
(New York: Pantheon Books, 1978), 65.

6
Peattie, “Dragon’s Seed,” 67.

7
Ibid., 67.

8
Zhang Xianwen,
Zhongguo kang-Ri zhanzhengshi
[A history of China’s resistance war against Japan] (Nanjing: Nanjing daxue chubanshe, 2001), 92-105.

9
Guan Wenhua, “Rijun dui Beipiao funü de lingru” [Japanese troops’ sexual violence against women in Beipiao], in
Qin Hua Rijun baoxing zonglu
[Collection of investigative records of the atrocities committed by the Japanese forces during Japan’s invasion of China], ed. Li Bingxin, Xu Junyuan, and Shi Yuxin (Shijiazhuang: Hebei renmin chubanshe, 1995) 69.

10
Ibid.

11
Ibid.

12
For a survey of the Chinese wartime publications on Japanese military sexual violence against Chinese women during the war, see Egami Sachiko, “Rijun funü baoxing he zhanshi Zhongguo funü zazhi” [Japanese military’s violence against women and wartime Chinese women’s magazines] in
Taotian zuinie: Erzhan shiqi de Rijun weianfu zhidu
[Monstrous atrocities: The Japanese military comfort women system during the Second World War], ed. Su Zhiliang, Rong Weimu, and Chen Lifei (Shanghai: Xuelin chubanshe, 2000), 56-70.

13
Timothy Brook,
Collaboration: Japanese Agents and Local Elites in Wartime China
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 23-24.

14
Besides the evidence recorded in the Chinese source cited above, Korean survivor Ch’oe Il-rye’s testimony also dates the establishment of Japanese military comfort stations in the Manchuria area to 1932. See Sarah Soh,
The Comfort Women: Sexual Violence and Postcolonial Memory in Korea and Japan
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 125.

15
Based on the reliable documents discovered and the field investigations conducted since the 1990s, several researchers have concurred that the earliest comfort stations were set up by the Japanese imperial military in Shanghai. See, for example, George Hicks,
The Comfort Women: Japan’s Brutal Regime of Enforced Prostitution in the Second World War
(New York: W.W. Norton, 1994), 45-49; Chin Sung Chung, “Korean Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan,” in
True Stories of the Korean Comfort Women: Testimonies Compiled by the Korean Council for Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan and the Research Association on the Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan
, ed. Keith Howard, trans. Young Joo Lee (London: Cassell, 1995), 13-15; Yoshimi Yoshiaki,
Jūgun ianfu
[Military comfort women] (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1995), 14-19; Su Zhiliang,
Weianfu yanjiu
[A study of the comfort women] (Shanghai: Shanghai shudian chubanshe, 1999), 23-40; Yuki Tanaka,
Japan’s Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery and Prostitution during World War II and the US Occupation
(New York: Routledge, 2002), 8-12. The Korean survivors’ testimony and evidence in China also indicate that comfort facilities were set up in the Manchurian area around the same time. See Soh,
Comfort Women
, 125.

16
Morisaki Kazue,
Karayuki san
[Overseas prostitutes] (Tokyo: Asahi shimbunsha, 1976), 92.

17
Su,
Weianfu yanjiu
, 24.

18
Ibid., 24.

19
“Shōwa jūsannenjū ni okeru zairyū hōjin no tokushu fujo no jōkyō oyobi sono torishimari narabi ni sokai tōkyoku no shishō torishimari jōkyō,” in
Jūgun ianfu shiryōshū
[A collection of documents on military comfort women], ed. Yoshimi Yoshiaki, 184-85 (Tokyo: Ōtsuki shoten, 1992).

20
For more detailed discussion of this point, see, Chin-Sung Chung, “Wartime State Violence against Women of Weak Nations; Military Sexual Slavery Enforced by Japan during World War II,”
Korean and Korean American Studies Bulletin
5 15, 2-3 (1994): 16-17; Yoshimi,
Jūgun ianfu
, 18-19; and Tanaka,
Japan’s Comfort Women
, 10-12.

21
Su,
Weianfu yanju
, 31-34.

22
Ibid., 30.