Darwin Among the Machines (46 page)

35
.
Hodges,
Turing
, 307.

36
.
Carpenter and Doran,
Turing's A.C.E. Report
, 2.

37
.
Sara Turing,
Alan M. Turing
(Cambridge: W. Heffer & Sons, 1959), 78.

38
.
M. H. A. Newman, quoted in Good, “Turing and the Computer,” 663.

39
.
Alan Turing, “Lecture to the London Mathematical Society on 20 February 1947,” in Carpenter and Doran,
Turing's A.C.E. Report
, 112.

40
.
Ibid., 106.

41
.
J. H. Wilkinson, “Turing's Work at the National Physical Laboratory,” in Metropolis, Howlett, and Rota,
History of Computing
, 111.

42
.
Alan Turing, “Intelligent Machinery,” report submitted to the National Physical Laboratory, 1948, in Donald Michie, ed.,
Machine Intelligence
, vol. 5 (1970), 3.

43
.
Turing, “Lecture,” 124.

44
.
Turing, “Intelligent Machinery,” 4.

45
.
Turing, “Lecture,” 123.

46
.
Turing, “Intelligent Machinery,” 9.

47
.
Ibid., 23.

48
.
Turing, “Computing Machinery,” 456.

49
.
Turing, “Intelligent Machinery,” 21–22.

50
.
Turing, “Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals,”
Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society
, 2d ser. 45 (1939); reprinted in Davis,
The Undecidable
, 209.

51
.
John von Neumann, 1948, “The General and Logical Theory of Automata,” in Lloyd A. Jeffress, ed.,
Cerebral Mechanisms in Behavior: The Hixon Symposium
(New York: Hafner, 1951), 26.

52
.
Leibniz, 1714,
The Monadology
, in George R. Montgomery, trans.,
Basic Writings: Discourse on Metaphysics; Correspondence with Arnauld; Monadology
(La Salle, Ill.: Open Court, 1902), 253.

1
.
John von Neumann to Gleb Wataghin, ca. 1946, as reported by Freeman J. Dyson,
Disturbing the Universe
(New York: Harper & Row, 1979), 194.

2
.
Stanislaw Ulam,
Adventures of a Mathematician
(New York: Scribner's, 1976), 231.

3
.
Nicholas Vonneumann, “John von Neumann: Formative Years,”
Annals of the History of Computing
11, no. 3 (1989): 172.

4
.
Eugene P. Wigner, “John von Neumann—A Case Study of Scientific Creativity,”
Annals of the History of Computing
. 11, no. 3 (1989): 168.

5
.
Edward Teller, in Jean R. Brink and Roland Haden, “Interviews with Edward Teller and Eugene P. Wigner,”
Annals of the History of Computing
11, no. 3 (1989): 177.

6
.
Stanislaw Ulam, “John von Neumann, 1903–1957,”
Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society
64, no. 3 (May 1958): 1.

7
.
Eugene Wigner, “Two Kinds of Reality,”
The Monnist
49, no. 2 (April 1964); reprinted in
Symmetries and Reflections
(Cambridge: MIT Press, 1967), 198.

8
.
John von Neumann, statement on nomination to membership in the AEC, 8 March 1955, von Neumann Papers, Library of Congress; in William Aspray,
John von Neumann and the Origins of Modern Computing
(Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990), 247.

9
.
John von Neumann, as quoted by J. Robert Oppenheimer in testimony before the AEC Personnel Security Board, 16 April 1954,
In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer
(Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1954; reprint, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1970), 246 (page citation is to the reprint edition).

10
.
Nicholas Metropolis, “The MANIAC,” in Nicholas Metropolis, J. Howlett, and Gian-Carlo Rota, eds.,
A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century
(New York: Academic Press, 1980), 459.

11
.
John von Neumann, testimony before the AEC Personnel Security Board, 27 April 1954,
In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer
, 655.

12
.
Ralph Slutz, interview by Christopher Evans, June 1976, OH 086, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

13
.
John von Neumann, “The Role of Mathematics in the Sciences and Society,” address to Princeton graduate alumni, June 1954; reprinted in John von Neumann,
Theory of Games, Astrophysics, Hydrodynamics and Meteorology
, vol. 6 of
Collected Works
(Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1963), 478, 490.

14
.
Galileo Galilei,
Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences
(Leyden: Elzevir, 1638), 275; trans. Henry Crew and Alfonso De Salvio (New York: Macmillan, 1914; reprint, Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1946), 242 (page citation is to the reprint edition).

15
.
Ibid., 246.

16
.
Herman Goldstine, 16 August 1944, in
The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1972), 166.

17
.
William H. Calvin, “A Stone's Throw and Its Launch Window: Timing Precision and Its Implications for Language and Hominid Brains,”
Journal of Theoretical Biology
104 (September 1983): 121.

18
.
Robert Oppenheimer to James Conant, October 1949, AEC Records; in James R. Shepley and Clay Blair,
The Hydrogen Bomb
(Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1954), 70.

19
.
Willis H. Ware,
The History and Development of the Electronic Computer Project at the Institute for Advanced Study
, RAND Corporation Memorandum P-377, 10 March 1953, 5–6.

20
.
Martin Schwarzschild, interview by William Aspray, 18 November 1986, OH 124, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

21
.
Richard Feynman, “Los Alamos from Below—Reminiscences of 1943–1945,”
Engineering and Science
39, no. 2 (January–February 1976): 25.

22
.
Osborne Reynolds, “An Experimental Investigation of the Circumstances which determine whether the Motion of Water shall be direct or sinuous, and the Laws of Resistance in parallel Channels,”
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
174 (1883): 936.

23
.
Ibid., 938.

24
.
Stanislaw Ulam, “Von Neumann: The Interaction of Mathematics and Computing,” in Metropolis, Howlett, and Rota,
History of Computing
, 93.

25
.
Norbert Wiener,
I Am a Mathematician
(New York: Doubleday, 1956), 260.

26
.
Lewis Fry Richardson,
Weather Prediction by Numerical Process
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922; fascimile reprint, New York: Dover Publications, 1965), xiii.

27
.
Ibid., xi.

28
.
W. Daniel Hillis, “Richard Feynman and the Connection Machine,”
Physics Today
42, no. 2 (1989): 78.

29
.
Lewis Fry Richardson,
Arms and Insecurity: A Mathematical Investigation into the Causes of War
, ed. Quincy Wright and C. C. Lienau (Pittsburgh: The Boxwood Press, 1960);
Statistics of Deadly Quarrels
, ed. Quincy Wright and C. C. Lienau (Pittsburgh: The Boxwood Press, 1960).

30
.
Lewis Fry Richardson, “The Analogy Between Mental Images and Sparks,”
Psychological Review
37, no. 3 (May 1930): 222.

31
.
Sidney Shalett, “Electronics to Aid Weather Figuring,”
New York Times
, 11 January 1946, 12.

32
.
Stanislaw Ulam,
Science, Computers and People: From the Tree of Mathematics
(Boston: Birkhauser, 1986), 164.

33
.
Shalett, “Electronics,” 12.

34
.
Stan Frankel, letter to Brian Randell, 1972, in Brian Randell, “On Alan Turing and the Origins of Digital Computers,”
Machine Intelligence
7 (1972): 10.

35
.
Rudolf Ortvay to John von Neumann, Budapest, 29 January 1941, in Denes Nagy, ed., “The von Neumann–Ortvay Connection,”
Annals of the History of Computing
11, no. 3 (1989): 187.

36
.
Warren S. McCulloch and Walter Pitts, “A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity,”
Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics
5 (1943): 115–133.

37
.
John von Neumann, n.d., Library of Congress, summarized in Aspray,
von Neumann
, 271.

38
.
Herman H. Goldstine, interview by Nancy Stern, 11 August 1980, OH 018, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

39
.
Metropolis, Howlett, and Rota,
History of Computing
, xvii.

1
.
Arthur Burks, Herman Goldstine, and John von Neumann, 1946,
Preliminary Discussion of the Logical Design of an Electronic Computing Instrument
(Princeton, N.J.: Institute for Advanced Study, 28 June 1946; 2d ed., September 1947); reprinted in John von Neumann,
Design of Computers, Theory of Automata and Numerical Analysis
, vol. 5 of
Collected Works
, ed. Abraham Taub (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1963), 79.

2
.
Harry Woolf, ed.,
A Community of Scholars: The Institute for Advanced Study Faculty and Members, 1930–1980
(Princeton, N.J.: Institute for Advanced Study, 1980), ix.

3
.
Ibid., 130.

4
.
Abraham Flexner,
I Remember
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1940), 13.

5
.
Abraham Flexner, “The Usefulness of Useless Knowledge,”
Harper's Magazine
, October 1939, 548.

6
.
Flexner,
I Remember
, 75.

7
.
Ibid., 356.

8
.
Flexner, “Useless Knowledge,” 551.

9
.
Flexner,
I Remember
, 361, 375.

10
.
Flexner, “Useless Knowledge,” 551.

11
.
Ibid., 552.

12
.
Flexner,
I Remember
, 375.

13
.
Ibid., 377–378.

14
.
Flexner, “Useless Knowledge,” 551.

15
.
Ibid., 551.

16
.
Flexner,
I Remember
, 375.

17
.
Arthur W. Burks, interview by William Aspray, 20 June 1987, OH 136, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

18
.
Willis H. Ware, interview by Nancy Stern, 19 January 1981, OH 37, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

19
.
John von Neumann, “Governed,” review of
Cybernetics
, by Norbert Wiener,
Physics Today
2 (1949): 33.

20
.
Willis H. Ware,
The History and Development of the Electronic Computer Project at the Institute for Advanced Study
, RAND Corporation Memorandum P-377, 10 March 1953, 7–8.

21
.
Burks, interview.

22
.
John von Neumann, “Memorandum on the Program of the High-Speed Computer,” 8 November 1945, quoted in Herman Goldstine,
The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1972), 255.

23
.
Irving J. Good, “Some Future Social Repercussions of Computers,”
International Journal of Environmental Studies
1 (1970): 69.

24
.
Burks, interview.

25
.
Ralph Slutz, interview by Christopher Evans, June 1976, OH 86, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

26
.
Ware, interview.

27
.
Herman H. Goldstine, interview by Nancy Stern, 11 August 1980, OH 18, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

28
.
Norbert Wiener,
I Am a Mathematician
(New York: Doubleday, 1956), 242–243.

29
.
Julian Bigelow, Arturo Rosenblueth, and Norbert Wiener, “Behavior, Purpose and Teleology,”
Philosophy of Science
10, no. 1 (1943): 22.

30
.
Warren S. McCulloch, “The Imitation of One Form of Life by Another—Biomimesis,” in Eugene E. Bernard and Morley R. Kare, eds.,
Biological Prototypes and Synthetic Systems
, Proceedings of the Second Annual Bionics Symposium sponsored by Cornell University and the General Electric Company, Advanced Electronics Center, held at Cornell University, August 30–September 1, 1961, vol. 1 (New York: Plenum Press, 1962), 393.

31
.
Ware, interview.

32
.
Ibid.

33
.
Julian Bigelow, “Computer Development at the Institute for Advanced Study,” in Nicholas Metropolis, J. Howlett, and Gian-Carlo Rota, eds.,
A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century
(New York: Academic Press, 1980), 291.