Muslim Fortresses in the Levant: Between Crusaders and Mongols (132 page)

4 Ayalon, D., “Studies in the structure of the Mamluk army – I: The army stationed in Egypt,”
BSOAS
15 (1953): 203–28. [Rpt. in
Studies on the Mamluks of Egypt (1250–1517)
, London, Variorum,1977, no. I]; ibid, “Studies in the structure of the Mamluk Army – II: The
,”
BSOAS
15 (1953): 448–76. [Rpt. in
Studies on the Mamluks of Egypt (1250–1517)
, London, Variorum,1977, no. I].

5 The discussion here and throughout the study does not deal with the Sultanate’s southern border, i.e. the region of Sudan or the western desert, today the modern border between Egypt and Libya.

6 Abū’l-Fidā’,
The Memoir of a Syrian Prince Abū’l-Fidā, Sultan of Hamā 672–732 (1273–1331)
, trans. P. M. Holt (Wiesbaden, 1983), 29. See Map 3.5 showing the fortresses in Armenian territory that were conquered by the Mamluks, and shuttled back and forth between the Mamluks and the Armenians.

7
, Badr al-Dīn
al-jumān fī ta’rīkh ahl al-zamān
(Cairo, 1992), vol. 4, 300–1.

8 Abū’l-Fidā’,
al-Mukhtasar fī ta’rīkh al-bashar
(Istanbul 1869–70), vol. 2, pt. 4, 122–123.

9 A comprehensive discussion on the difficulties concerning the definition of borders in the eleventh to thirteenth centuries in the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem can be found in Ellenblum, R.,
Crusader Castles and Modern Histories
(Cambridge, 2007), ch. 9: “Borders, Frontiers and Centers,” 118–45.

10
Mission to Asia: Narratives and Letters of the Franciscan Missionaries in Mongolia and China in the Thirteenth Century,
trans. by a nun of Stanbrook Abbey, ed. C. Dawson (New York, 1955), 35–36.

11 Lewis, C. G., “A survey of the Euphrates valley from Deir-Ez-Zor to Aleppo,”
Geographical Journal
59 (1922): 453–7.

12 Brawer, M.,
Atlas Carta of the Middle East
(Jerusalem, 1990), 105–6 [Hebrew].

13 Eddé, A. M.,
La principauté ayyoubide d’Alep
(Stuttgart, 1999), fig. 64;
Historical Atlas of Islam
, 2nd rev. edn, ed. H. Kennedy (Leiden, 2002), 22–3.

14 The details are based on a reading of four topographical maps of the region of the upper Euphrates. The maps were drawn by the Russian General Staff in 1983, scale 1:500,000.

15 The distances are measured according to aerial lines. Thus they are approximations.

16 Somogyi, J., “Ada-Dhahabis record of the destruction of Damascus by the Mongols in 699–700/ 1299–1301,” in
Ignace Goldziher Memorial Volume
, eds. S. Lowinger and J. Somogyi (Budapest, 1948), pt. 1, 353–86.

17 Amitai-Preiss, R.,
Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Īlkhānid War 1260–1281
(Cambridge, 1995), 202.

18 Edwards, R. W.,
The Fortifications of Armenian Cilicia
(Washington, 1986), 9.

19 Sinclair, T. A.,
Eastern Turkey: An Architectural and Archaeological Survey
(London, 1990), vol. 4, 229.

20 Der Nersessian, S., “The Kingdom of Cilician Armenia” in
A History of the Crusades
, gen. ed. K. M. Setton,
II: The Later Crusades
(Madison, 1969), 635.

21 A short description of the mountain passages is given in Har-El, S.,
Struggle for Domination in the Middle East: The Ottoman Mamluk War 1485–91
(Leiden, New York and Cologne, 1995), 52–4. The topographic description is based on a map prepared by the French army in 1942,
Syrie et Liban, Carte dressée et publiée par le Service Geographique, des Forces Françaises Libres au Levant
, 1:500,000 (1942).

22 Amitai, R., “The conquest of Arsuf y Baybars: political and military aspects,”
MSR
9/1 (2005): 61–83.

23 Riley-Smith, J.,
The Atlas of the Crusades
(New York and Oxford, 1991), 115; Barag, D., “A new source concerning the ultimate borders of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem,”
IEJ
(1970): 29, 197–217; Ellenblum,
Modern Histories
, 177–86.

24 Marshall, C.,
Warfare in the Latin East, 1191–1291
(Cambridge, 1996), 93, 242.

25 Amitai, R., “Edward of England and Abagha Ilkhan,” in
Tolerance and Intolerance
, eds M. Gervers and J. M. Powell (Syracuse, 2004), 75–80.

26 Amitai-Preiss, R., “The aftermath of
: the beginning of the Mamlūk-Ilkhānid cold war,”
Al-Masaq
3 (1990): 9–10, n. 48.

27 Nicolle, D.,
Arms and Armour of the Crusading Era 1050–1350: Islam, Eastern Europe and Asia,
2nd edn (London and Mechanicsburg, PA, 1999)
,
67–9.

28 Edwards,
Fortifications,
67–9, 37–50.

29 Molin, K.,
Unknown Crusader Castles
(London and New York, 2001), 152–3.

30 Lewis, B.,
The Assassins
(New York, 1968), 116–117.

31 Melville, C., “Sometimes by the sword, sometimes by the dagger: the role of the
in Mamluk-Mongol relations in the 8th/14th century,” in
Medieval
History and Though
, ed. F. Daftary (Cambridge, 1996), 247–63.

32 Ibn
,
Rihlat Ibn
, ed. Talal Harb (Beirut, 1992), 95.