Native Seattle (48 page)

28.
For discussion of these powerful cultural dynamics, see David M. Wrobel,
The End of American Exceptionalism: Frontier Anxiety from the Old West to the New Deal
(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993); and Michael Kammen,
Mystic Chords of Memory: The Transformation of Tradition in American Culture
(New York: Knopf, 1991).

29.
“Indians in Canoes Beaten by Whites,”
Seattle P-I
, 22 July 1911; “Chief Seattle to Be Honored,”
Seattle Times
, 12 November 1936; and “Pioneers Honor City's Founders at West Seattle,”
Seattle Times
, 16 November 1938.

30.
For examples of Native participation in Chief Seattle Days, see “To Honor Memory of Old Chief Seattle,”
Seattle Times
, 25 August 1911; “Service at Grave of Chief Seattle Prove [
sic
] Most Enthusiastic,”
Seattle Times
, 27 August 1911; and “Palefaces in Yearly Homage at Grave of Chief Seattle,”
Seattle Times
, 2 August 1935. For one example of alternative historical consciousness from the South—the story of a slave rebellion—see James Sidbury,
Ploughshares into Swords: Race, Rebellion, and Identity in Gabriel's Virginia, 1730–1810
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). For speculations on the “intimate remembrances” of Seeathl in local Indian communities, see Bierwert, “Remembering Chief Seattle.”

31.
Shelton,
Gram Ruth Sehome Shelton,
66.

32.
Harriet Shelton Williams, “Indian Potlatch,”
Seattle P-I
, 10 August 1939.

8 / On the Cusp of Past and Future

1.
Marian W. Smith, ed.,
Indians of the Urban Northwest
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1949), viii, 4.

2.
Ibid., 6.

3.
Richard C. Berner,
Seattle, 1921–1940: From Boom to Bust
(Seattle: Charles Press, 1992); Rolf Knight,
Indians at Work: An Informal History of Native Indian Labour in British Columbia, 1858–1930
(Vancouver: New Star Books, 1978); and Dauenhauer, Haa Kusteyí,
Our Culture
, 691–95.

4.
Except where noted otherwise, data in this chapter come from the manuscript of the fifteenth census of the United States, NARA.

5.
Lynn Moen, ed.,
Voices of Ballard: Immigrant Stories from the Vanishing Generation
(Seattle: Nordic Heritage Museum, 2001), 163–65, 174–79.

6.
Richard Hugo,
The Real West Marginal Way: A Poet's Autobiography
, ed. Rip-ley S. Hugo, Lois M. Welch, and James Welch (New York: W. W. Norton, 1986), 8, 11; and Donald Francis Roy, “Hooverville: A Study of a Community of Homeless Men in Seattle” (M.A. thesis, University of Washington, 1935), 12, 25, 83.

7.
Polk's Seattle (Washington) City Directory,
vol. 44 (Seattle: R. L. Polk and Co., 1930), 823; Colson,
Makah Indians
, 168.

8.
Interview with Diane Vendiola by Will Sarvis, 10 September 2001, Anacortes Museum; Bob Santos,
Humbows, Not Hot Dogs! Memoirs of a Savvy Asian American Activist
(Seattle: International Examiner Press, 2002), 35. For Seattle's Filipino history, see Dorothy Fujita-Rony,
American Workers, Colonial Power: Philippine Seattle and the Transpacific West, 1919–1941
(Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2003).

9.
Totem poles and other forms of Northwest Coast art marking the approaches to the city are described in James M. Rupp and Mary Randlett,
Art in Seattle's Public Places: An Illustrated Guide
(Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1992), 162, 255. See also “City Totem Pole Gone to Happy Hunting Ground,”
Seattle Times
, 2 May 1966. Numerous photographs of the Totem Pole Motel and other examples of “Indian” roadside art on the Pacific Highway can be found in the collection of the Museum of History and Industry.

10.
“On with the New,”
Seattle Argus
, 22 July 1939;
Seattle Argus
, 12 November 1938; “Heap Big Fuss; Use Store-Bought Paint on Totem Pole, Quit Talking, Say Indians,”
Seattle Daily Times
, 21 July 1938; “At Long Last! Indians to Get Famed Totem,”
Seattle P-I
, 9 December 1939; Aldona Jonaitis, “Totem Poles and the Indian New Deal,”
Canadian Journal of Native Studies
2 (1989): 237–52; and “Replica of Famous Old Landmark Arrives Safely from Alaska,”
Seattle P-I
, 18 April 1940.

11.
Bryden Turner, “105, and History Lives for Jimmy John,”
Nanaimo (BC) Times
, 7 May 1981; Shirl Ramsay, “A Visit with Jimmy John: Master Carver,”
Victoria (BC) Daily Colonist
, 1 July 1979; Reg Ashwell, “Captain Jack's Inside House-Posts,”
Victoria (BC) Daily Colonist
, 12 August 1974; Gregory Roberts, “A Crisp Assessment of Fish and Chips,”
Seattle P-I
, 29 May 1998; and Hilary Stewart,
Looking at Totem Poles
(Vancouver: Douglas and McIntyre, 1993), 117.

12.
For the accounts of “old-timers,” see Ross Anderson, “Gritty Last Stand of ‘Old Seattle’: The 1930s,”
Seattle Times
, 29 July 2001. For one historian's perspective on the 1930s, and an explanation of the nostalgia they engender, see Sale,
Seattle, Past to Present
, 136–44.

13.
John Dos Passos,
The 42nd Parallel
(New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1930), 75.

9 / Urban Renewal in Indian Territory

1.
Richard Simmons, “Indians Invade Fort Lawton,”
Seattle P-I
, 9 March 1970; “Army Disrupts Indian Claim on Fort Lawton,”
Seattle P-I
, 9 March 1970; and
“Indian ‘Attack’ on Fort Lawton Fascinates World Press,”
Seattle Times
, 9 March 1970.

2.
Richard C. Berner,
Seattle Transformed: World War II to Cold War
(Seattle: Charles Press, 1999), 44–47. A 1947 poem protesting the plane's name can be found in John M. Rich,
Chief Seattle's Unanswered Challenge: Spoken on the Wild Forest Threshold of the City That Bears His Name, 1854
(Seattle: Lowman and Hanford, 1947), 51–53. For the effects of wartime mobilization on the West more broadly, see Gerald D. Nash,
American West Transformed: The Impact of the Second World War
(Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990).

3.
Lewis Kamb, “Adeline Skultka Garcia, 1923–2004: Activist Changed Life for Urban Indians,”
Seattle P-I
, 28 February 2004. For discussions of Indians in the Second World War, see Alison R. Bernstein,
American Indians and World War II: Toward a New Era in Indian Affairs
(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991); Jere Bishop Franco,
Crossing the Pond: The Native American Effort in World War II
(Denton: University of North Texas Press, 1999); and Kenneth William Townsend,
World War II and the American Indian
(Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2000).

4.
Bahr, Chadwick, and Stauss, “Discrimination against Urban Indians in Seattle”; interview with Marilyn Bentz by Teresa Brown Wolf Powers, n.d. (2000), videotape, American Indian Studies Center Library, University of Washington.

5.
Morgan,
Skid Road
, 9; Cathy Duchamp, “The Urban Indian Experience,” KUOW National Public Radio, 13 January 2004, transcripts at
www.kuow.org
; Skid Road Study Committee,
Report
(Seattle: Council of Planning Affiliates, 1969), not paginated.

6.
Karen Tranberg Hansen, “American Indians and Work in Seattle: Associations, Ethnicity, and Class” (Ph.D. diss., University of Washington, 1979), 93–98; interview with Adeline Garcia by Teresa Brown Wolf Powers, 24 May 2000, videotape, American Indian Studies Center Library, University of Washington; interview with Lillian Chapelle by Teresa Brown Wolf Powers, n.d. (2000), videotape, American Indian Studies Center Library, University of Washington.

7.
“Indian Women's Organization Grows,”
Northwest Indian News
, February 1959;
Indian Center News
, 21 February 1962.

8.
Gail Paul, “Dream of Permanent Home Inspires Summer Activity at ‘Indian Center,’”
Indian Center News
, 8 September 1962; interview with Mary Jo Butterfield by Teresa Brown Wolf Powers, 11 May 2001, videotape, American Indian Studies Center Library, University of Washington.

9.
Indian Center News
, March 1971; interview with Adeline Garcia; and interview with Mary Jo Butterfield.

10.
Ramona Bennett lecture, 6 December 2000, videotape, American Indian Studies Center Library, University of Washington; “North American Indian Benefit Ball,”
Indian Center News
, 7 April 1961; “Indian Center Picnic,”
Indian
Center News
, 16 September 1961; “Indians Perform for Audubon Society,”
Indian Center News
, February 1967; and “Successful Seventh Annual Salmon Bake,”
Indian Center News
, September 1967.

11.
“Pearl Warren Discusses Urban Indian Problems before Senate Subcommittee,”
Indian Center News
, January 1968; “National Indian Urban Consultation Organizes in Seattle,”
Indian Center News
, February 1968; interview with Letoy Eike by Teresa Brown Wolf Powers, 29 August 2000, videotape, American Indian Studies Center Library, University of Washington; Maxine Cushing Gray, “Buck-Passing on Longhouse Led to Ft. Lawton Affair,”
Seattle Argus
, 13 March 1970; and Rupp and Randlett,
Art in Seattle's Public Places
, 161.

12.
Santos,
Humbows, Not Hot Dogs!
35, 56–60; and “A Brief History of the United Indians of All Tribes Foundation,” Pamphlet Files, MSCUA.

13.
See Paul Chaat Smith and Robert Warrior,
Like a Hurricane: The Indian Movement from Alcatraz to Wounded Knee
(New York: New Press, 1996); Adam Fortunate Eagle,
Heart of the Rock: The Indian Invasion of Alcatraz
(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2002); and Stephen E. Cornell,
The Return of the Native: American Indian Political Resurgence
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).

14.
Don Hannula, “Indian Picket Line Remains at Ft. Lawton,”
Seattle Times
, 11 March 1970; Jerry Bergman, “Indians Begin 2nd Week of Picketing,”
Seattle Times
, 17 March 1970; Richard Simmons, “MP's Arrest 77 Indians at Lawton,”
Seattle P-I
, 16 March 1970; Don Hannula, “Indians Again Try to Occupy Fort Lawton; 80 Detained,”
Seattle Times
, 2 April 1970; Don Hannula, “Message from Sky: ‘Fort, Give Up,’”
Seattle Times
, 19 March 1970; Derek Creisler,
Princess of the Powwow
(Seattle: Running Colors Productions, 1987); and “United Indians of All Tribes Use Invasion of Fort Lawton in Effort to Get Support for All-Indian Multiservice and Educational Center,”
Indian Center News
, April 1970.

15.
Bahr, Chadwick, and Stauss, “Discrimination against Urban Indians in Seattle,” 6; Don Hannula, “Indian Picket Line Remains at Ft. Lawton,”
Seattle Times
, 11 March 1970; “Indians Seek Immediate Use of 16 Ft. Lawton Buildings,”
Seattle Times
, 14 March 1970; “Indians Want Nixon Powwow,”
Seattle Times
, 16 March 1970; “A Brief History of the United Indians of All Tribes Foundation,” Pamphlet Files, MSCUA; “Seattle Human Rights Commission Says Claim of Indians Must Not Be Ignored,”
Seattle Medium
, 12 November 1970; “City, Indians Agree on Lawton Lease Plan,”
Seattle Times
, 15 November 1971; Hilda Bryant, “A Proud Day for the Indians—Big Cultural Arts Center Opens Here,”
Seattle P-I
, 12 May 1977; Brenda Dunn, “The Indian Arts Center That Nobody Thought Would Happen,”
Seattle Weekly
, 18 May 1977; and interview with Arlene Red Elk by Teresa Brown Wolf Powers, 18 May 2000, videotape, American Indian Studies Center Library, University of Washington.

16.
Guy Monthan and Doris Monthan, “Daybreak Star Center,”
American Indian Art
3, no. 3 (Summer 1978): 28–34.

17.
Santos,
Humbows, Not Hot Dogs!
64–67; interview with Diane Vendiola by Will Sarvis, 10 September 2001, Anacortes Museum; interview with Marilyn Bentz; and
Indian Center News
, March 1971. For similar tensions elsewhere, see Smith and Warrior,
Like a Hurricane;
and Loretta Fowler,
Shared Symbols, Contested Meanings: Gros Ventre Culture and History, 1778–1984
(Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987).

18.
Lewis Kamb, “Adeline Skultka Garcia, 1923–2004: Activist Changed Life for Urban Indians,”
Seattle P-I
, 28 February 2004; and Jacqueline R. Swanson, “American Indian Women's Service League: The Role of Indian and Alaska Native Women in Establishing Seattle's Contemporary Indian Community,” unpublished research paper in author's possession.

19.
Diane Shamash, ed.,
In Public: Seattle, 1991
(Seattle: Seattle Arts Commission, 1991), 40.