Resurrecting Pompeii (46 page)

It should, however, be noted that there is a long tradition of displaying human anatomical images in Europe, often in an extremely theatrical manner. The major work of the sixteenth-century anatomist Andreas Vesalius of Brussels
, De Humani Corpus Fabrica
, includes detailed woodcuts of humans divesting themselves of layers of their anatomy, often within the setting of a romantic landscape (see Frontispiece).
⁴
The exhibitions of plastinated bodies devised by Gunther von Hagens, while considered highly offensive by some people, clearly operate within this tradition. It is possible that some of the public outrage about Von Hagen’s exhibitions of posed humans reflects a shift in attitude.

Italy may be slightly more immune from changing global attitudes, as there is a tradition dating back to medieval times of public exhibition of human remains for religious purposes. Natural mummification of deceased individuals who had been placed in crypts, for example, was considered to be the result of divine intervention, as a failure to putrefy was seen as suspension of the laws of nature, and such bodies were usually displayed. Similarly, monks and lay supporters of the Capuchin monastery at Palermo, who were either naturally or artificially mummified between the sixteenth and turn of the twentieth centuries, are on view in subterranean chambers of the building.
⁵
Sometimes bodies have been exhibited to emphasize views about the Resurrrection and the separation of body and soul, like the disarticulated remains of approximately 4,000 Capuchin brothers and other individuals who died between 1528 and 1870. These bones have been used to form elaborate patterns, such as a clock made from vertebrae and other skeletal elements, which decorate the crypt of Santa Maria della Concezione in Rome.
⁶

To date, there has been no controversy about the ethical considerations associated with the study of human remains in either Pompeii or Herculaneum and, while there is evidence that human skeletal elements have been souvenired from Pompeii, there has been no call for their repatriation. Human remains have been on view to the public in Pompeii since the eighteenth century and this is unlikely to change in the foreseeable future. Still, ethical issues are dynamic and it is possible that attitudes could eventually alter.

Human skeletal remains in Herculaneum have, until recently, been on display. Some of the more recent finds were cast in latex prior to their removal for analysis, which allows skeletons to be observed as they were found in their original locations. This is probably more the result of pragmatic considerations, rather than the desire to deal with sensibilities about seeing real skeletons
in situ
. Ongoing problems with groundwater provide an imperative for the removal of bones, particularly those on the ancient beachfront.

Discussion with members of the Herculaneum Conservation Project revealed that the local community identify as stakeholders and maintain a continued interest in being able to view the remains of the victims, preferably
in situ
.
⁷
They have expressed disappointment when told that the human remains can no longer be viewed on site. There have been suggestions from foreign visitors, mostly North Americans and Australians, that the human remains should not be displayed as they might upset visitors to the site.

It is perhaps rather chauvinistic for people from other cultures to extrapolate their values onto site management. Ultimately, the decisions that are made are the responsibility of the stakeholders, though it could be argued that these sites are of world significance and that we could all be described as stakeholders.

The most essential and pleasurable part of the morning ritual to gain access to the Sarno and Forum bath skeletal collections was to share coffee and a chat with the custodians responsible for the keys to these buildings. Their main interest in my Antipodean background was the wildlife – mostly its potential as cuisine. One of the custodians was a touch on the corpulent side and another rather thin. One morning the thin one was giving his rounder colleague a hard time about the quantity of food he ate. The subject of kangaroos came up and the better fed of the two quipped that this was just the kind of meat that his more slender counterpart would eat as it was lean and hard. He concluded that regardless of the fact that his colleague never ate any fat, he was going to die just the same. Sadly, he was correct and both of them are no longer alive. We cannot stave off death, no matter what we do. A mass disaster does not discriminate and has left us with what appears to be a random sample that reflects a living population. While the victims did not choose their fate, their rediscovery and subsequent subjection to analysis has bestowed upon them a modicum of immortality.

Abscess
An abscess is a localized collection of pus in a cavity that is formed by the disintegration of tissue. In the case of dental abscess, they often occur within the alveolar bone near the apex of the root of a tooth.

Acetabulum
This is the portion of the hip joint formed by the coxa. It is the socket, which articulates with the head of the femur.
Aetiology
The study of the origins, causes and reasons for diseases and the way in which they operate. When a disorder is described as being of unknown aetiology, it means that the cause is not known.
Alveolar
Derived from the Latin,
alveolus
, meaning little holes. The term refers to tooth sockets.
Alveolar resorption
The removal of alveolar bone.
Amphitheatre
A type of structure with no Greek antecedents. Oval in plan, its primary purpose was to seat the spectators of gladiatorial fights and other spectacles. The earliest surviving amphitheatre is in Pompeii and dates to about 80
_BC
.
Anatomic position
The standard for anatomical descriptions. It involves an erect posture with the arms at the side and the palms facing forward.
Ankylosis
An abnormal consolidation of a joint, which immobilizes it.
Anomaly
Unlike the usual form.
Ante mortem
Prior to death.
Anthropometric
The measurement of the human form.
Anthropometry
Measurement of the human body.
Aperture
An opening.
Apex
The most superior point of the skull, directly superior to the porion.
Apical
Towards the apex or tip of the root of a tooth.
Apodyterium
The equivalent of a cloak room or changing room in a bath complex. It was also thought to serve as a waiting room for slaves and attendants.
Appendicular skeleton
The bones of the limbs, the shoulder and pelvic girdles, but not the sacrum.
Apposition
To fit together.
Arthritis
The inflammation of a joint.
Arthropathy
Any disease that affects the joints.
Articulation
A normal point of contact between two adjacent bones.
Ash
Fragmentary or pulverized volcanic materials.
Asterion
The external point where the lambdoid and temporoparietal sutures intersect.
Asterionic bone A
n extra-sutural or wormian bone. It tends to be triangular in shape and occurs at the junction of the lambdoid and temporoparietal suture. The boundaries for this bone are the parietal, temporal and occipital bones.
Atrium
The central hall of a traditional house of Italic design.
Atrophy
Wasting away and reduction in size.
Attrition
In the context of skeletal biology, this term refers to the wearing down of a structure from abrasion as a result of use; usually applied to tooth wear.
Auricular
Earlike. In the human skeleton, the auricular surface refers to the articular surface between the sacrum and the ilium, which is vaguely shaped like an ear.
Axial skeleton
The skull, vertebrae, ribs, sternum and sacrum.
Basicranium
The bones of the base of the cranium.
Basilar
Base (of the skull). This term is also used to describe the suture on the base of the skull between the occipital and the sphenoid.
Basion
A landmark situated at the midpoint of the anterior margin of the foramen magnum.
Bicuspid
A premolar tooth is also known as a bicuspid as it generally has two cusps.
Bi
fi
d
Cleft into two parts.
Bimodal
A frequency distribution of numerical data that has two peaks or modes.
Biological age
This term is used as an acknowledgement of the fact that there is not a linear relationship between growth and actual or chronological age. Biological age provides an indication of where an individual can be placed on the continuum of the ageing process.
Bitumen
Any natural hydrocarbon. It is also known as mineral pitch.
Bombs
Fist sized or larger lumps of rock that are ejected during an eruption.
Bony exostosis
An additional, often abnormal, overgrowth of bone in a localized area.
Boss
A protuberance or rounded eminence.
Brachy
Short. For example, brachydactyly means short fingers.
Brachycephalic
Interchangeable with brachycranic. Short-headed. It is defined by having a cephalic index above 80.
Bregma
Derived from a Greek word, meaning moist. In anatomy, it refers to the site of the anterior fontanelle (or little fountain), which is at the junction of the coronal and sagittal sutures in the midline of the skull. The brain can be felt pulsating at this point in early infancy. It is located at the midline at the point of intersection between the coronal and sagittal sutures.
Bruxism
Generally unconscious tooth grinding, which is usually associated with greater forces on the teeth than chewing and can result in significant tooth wear.
Calcaneus
Derived from the Latin,
calx
, refers to the bone of the heel.
Calculus
Dental calculus is mineralized plaque. It is also called tartar.
Caldarium
Hot room in a bath complex.
Caldera
A broad depression, generally circular in form and volcanic in origin. It characteristically has a diameter that is greater than one kilometre and sub-vertical walls. A caldera is createdwhenasectionthatoverliesthemagma chamber collapses and the chamber empties out in a violent eruption.
Calliper
In this context a calliper is a device used to measure bones. It can have either spreading or sliding arms.
Callus
. An unorganized network of woven bone that forms at the site of a bone fracture. It is normally replaced as the bone heals.
Calvarium (pl. Calvaria)
The portion of the skull containing the brain, namely, the cranium. This term refers to the area above the supraorbital ridge and the superior nuchal line and does not include the facial skeleton.
Canal
A tunnel or channel.
Cancellous
Derived from the Latin,
cancelli
, meaning grating or lattice. Refers to spongy bone with a lattice-like structure. It is porous and lightweight and is found under protuberances and where tendons attach, in the vertebral bodies, the ends of long bones, short bones and is sandwiched within flat bones. It is also known as trabecular bone.
Canine tooth
Single-rooted tooth between the lateral incisor and the first premolar.
Capsule
From the Latin
capsa
, or box.
Caries
Decay, resulting in the softening, discolouration and destruction of a tooth. It involves the decalcification of enamel or dentine.
Carpus
Wrist. Carpals are bones of the wrist.
Cartilage
Specialized fibrous connective tissue. Its key characteristics are that it is not mineralized and that it is tough and elastic.
Cartilaginous joint
A joint where the articulating bones are united by cartilage, which restricts movement.
Cementum
Bony tissue that covers the roots of the teeth.
Cervical
This term relates to the neck. The vertebrae of the neck are known as the cervical vertebrae. This word is also used to describe the margin between the root and crown of a tooth (also known as the cervicoenamel line or junction (CEJ)).
Chondral
Relating to cartilage.
Chronological age
The actual age of an individual.
Clavicle
The collarbone. This bone articulates medially with the sternum and laterally with the scapula.
Closed population
This is a population that does not experience either immigration or emigration of people.
Collagen
A supportive protein substance that is a major organic component of cartilage and bone.
Colles
’
fracture
This is a transverse fracture at the distal end of a radius. It often results from falling on an outstretched arm.
Comminute
This refers to breakage into small pieces. A comminuted fracture is one in which the bone splinters.
Commingled
Bone assemblages that contain a number of individuals. These assemblages are often incomplete and fragmentary.
Compact bone
Dense, solid bone that makes up the walls of bone shafts and external bone surfaces. It is also known as cortical bone.
Compound fracture
This term is used for a fracture where the broken bone perforates the skin.
Condyle
Derived from the Greek kondylos or knuckle. A condyle is a rounded eminence. This term is often used to describe rounded articular surfaces, such as those on the mandible and the femur.
Congenital
A condition that is present at birth. Such conditions are acquired during development and are not genetic.
Cord
This term is used to describe a straight line that joins two points on a curve.
Coronal suture
This suture separates the frontal from the parietal bones.
Corpus
Body.
Cortex
The outer, more dense portions of bone.
Costal
Ribs.
Coxa
Another term for the hip or innominate bone. It is formed by the fusion of the ischium, pubis and ilium.
Cranial
Towards the head.
Cranial sutures
These are fibrous joints of the skull.
Cranium
The skull without the mandible or hyoid bone.
Crater
A sub-circular depression, which is usually located at the summit or along the sides of the volcanic edifice, above the volcanic conduit. The volcanic material is emitted through the crater.
Cribra orbitalia
Lesions that present as bilateral pitting that can be observed in the orbital part of the frontal bone.
Cryptoporticus
A subterranean covered portico.
Cusp
A conical projection of the crown of a tooth.
Cuspid
An elevation in a tooth that is smaller than a cusp.
CT scans
Computed (axial) tomography (CT) scans were developed by Hounsfield in 1972. This technique enables computerized image reconstruction from a series of cross-sectional x-ray scans.
Cyst
An abnormal sac that contains solid or liquid material.
Deciduous
To shed. Deciduous dentition refers to the primary or milk teeth, which are shed and replaced with the permanent teeth.
Dehiscence
This means to burst open or to split and refers to the presence of extra slits in a bone.
Demography
The study of population statistics.
Dentin
The major constituent of a tooth, also known as ivory.
Diagenesis
Physical, chemical and biological changes to bone over time. It includes the uptake of elements from the surrounding soil or leaching of elements into the surrounding soil. Apparently the outer compact layer of bone is less susceptible to diagenesis than the trabecular bone, which provides less reliable data.
Diaphysis
The shaft of a long bone. It is also the primary ossification centre of a long bone.
Diploë
The spongy tissue between the inner and outer tables of the cranial bones.
Dimorphism
See sexual dimorphism.
Disarticulate
Separate
.
Dolichocephalic
Interchangeable with dolicocranic
.
Long-headed. It is defined by a cephalic index below 75.
DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid
A class of complex molecules called nucleic acids. DNA is found in the nucleus of virtually all living cells. It contains the genetic code that is required for a cell to produce the proteins needed to perform its function.
Dysplasia
An abnormality of development.
Eburnation
The polished surface of bone that is produced over time after the destruction of articular cartilage, as a result of contact between adjacent bones at the joint.
Ectocranial
The external surface of the cranium.
Enamel
The hard outer structure of the tooth.
Enamel hypoplasia
Malformation of the crown of a tooth, including linear furrowing, a complete lack of enamel or pitting. These can occur as a result of periods of malnutrition or ill health during the period in infancy and childhood when the crown is being formed. It should be noted that periods of stress do not always result in enamel hypoplasia and a lack of enamel hypoplasia is not necessarily an indicator of good health and nutrition during the growing years.
Endemic
A disease that is specific to a locality or region and reoccurs persistently in that population.
Endocranial
Within the cranium.
Epicondyle
An eminence at the articular end of a bone above a condyle.
Epidemic
A disease that spreads rapidly and widely in a population and is difficult to control.
Epidemiology
The study of causes and transmission of disease.
Epigenetic traits
Anomalous skeletal variants, which are generally nonpathological. On the whole, these present as innocuous features on the bone.
Epigraphic
Written evidence; it includes inscriptions and graffiti.
Epiphysis
A secondary centre of ossification of a long bone. It is separated from the shaft of a bone by cartilage, also known as the epiphyseal plate, which ossifies when growth has been completed.
Eruption
An explosion of fused solid or gaseous volcanic material from the crater after the rise of magma in the volcanic conduit.
Eversion
To turn outward.
Evulsion
To extract.
Exostosis
An additional, often abnormal, overgrowth of bone in a localized area.
Facet
A small, smooth area on a bone or tooth, which serves as a point of contact between bones or teeth. Tooth facets are often produced by wear.
Fallout
The settling and deposition of particulate matter out of an eruption plume and onto the surface of the ground. This includes volcanic aerosols and tephra.