Sex, Murder, and the Meaning of Life (29 page)

11
Fleeting Glances and Forgettable Faces:
The “booming, buzzing confusion” quotation comes from James, 1890. The research on attention to attractive women and men is reported in Maner et al., 2003. Women's inability to remember attractive men is reported in Maner et al., 2003, and in Anderson et al., 2010. The concentration game research is discussed in Becker, Kenrick, Guerin, & Maner, 2005. For a more detailed discussion of these issues, see Kenrick, Delton, Robertson, Becker, & Neuberg, 2007.

15
Contrast Effects:
See Helson, 1947, for the historical introduction of his theory of adaptation-level theory and contrast effects. Our initial research studying contrast and physical attractiveness is reported in Kenrick & Gutierres, 1980. The
Playboy
research is reported in Kenrick, Gutierres, & Goldberg, 1989. The finding that women are more influenced by dominance and men by beauty is reported in Kenrick, Neuberg, Zierk, & Krones, 1994.

18
Comparing Ourselves to Starlets and Moguls:
The effects of such comparisons on self-judgments are reported in Gutierres, Kenrick, & Partch, 1999. For a discussion of parallel effects on people's mood, see Kenrick, Montello,
Gutierres, & Trost, 1993. Much of this goes on at a nonconscious level, analogous to the various effects of hormones on judgment (e.g., Gangestad, Simpson, Cousins, Garver-Apgar, & Christensen, 2004; Haselton & Gangestad, 2006; Penton-Voak et al., 1999; Little, Jones, & DeBruine, 2008; Thornhill & Gangestad, 1999).

24
Everyday Murderous Thoughts:
Our research on homicidal fantasies is reported in Kenrick & Sheets, 1994. For a discussion of the similar results from the University of Texas, see Buss, 2005b, or Buss & Duntley, 2006. For an extensive treatment of sex differences in actual homicides around the world, see Daly & Wilson, 1988. For a discussion of women's inhibitions against direct aggression, see Björkqvist, Lagerspetz, & Kaukiainen, 1992.

28
Aggressing to Impress:
For a discussion of Capone's murder of Anselmi, Scalise, and Giunta and of the norms of violence among mafiosi, see Schoenberg, 1992, and Servadio, 1976. The initial research on “trivial altercations” was reported in Wolfgang, 1958. The quotation from the Dallas detective is taken from Mulvihill, Tumin, & Curtis, 1969, p. 230. For a discussion of the nontrivial significance of trivial altercations, see M. Wilson & Daly, 1985. For a good general discussion of sexual selection and differential parental investment, see Daly & Wilson, 1983.

31
Experimenting with Status-Linked Violence:
For the links among marriage, parenting, and testosterone, see Gray, Chapman, et al., 2004; Gray, Campbell, Marlowe, Lipson, & Ellison, 2004; Gray, Kahlenberg, Barrett, Lipson, & Ellison, 2002; and McIntyre et al., 2006. For a review of findings on the links among social class, testosterone, and aggression, see Dabbs & Morris, 1990, and Rowe, 1996. Our experimental studies of aggression and status motives are reported in Griskevicius et al., 2009.

34
Levels of Analysis:
See Alcock, 1998, for a discussion of some of Gould's problems with evolutionary analyses of human behavior. For a discussion of levels of analysis, see Sherman, 1988; Simpson & Gangestad, 2001; and Kenrick, Griskevicius, Neuberg, & Schaller, 2010.

37
When Women Get Direct:
See Campbell, 1999, for an evolutionarily informed analysis of women's aggression. See Cadbury, 2002, for a discussion of the French women's march on the palace at Versailles. For a discussion of the experimental study of women's aggression and resource scarcity, see Griskevicius et al., 2009. Muller, 2007, discusses violence in female chimps. The information about Lizzie Borden's conflict with her father is from Wikipedia (
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lizzie_Borden
).

39
Why Do Men Fantasize About Killing Strangers?:
Schredl, 2009, describes the research on sex differences in aggression in dreams. The research on people's inclination to think of a man when they think of anger is presented in Becker, Kenrick, Neuberg, Blackwell, & Smith, 2007.

43
A Failure to Discriminate:
For press reports on Lenell Geter's case, see Applebome, 1983, 1984. The quotation from him is from a personal communication to my colleague Steve Neuberg, who interviewed Geter for coverage in our social psychology text's chapter on prejudice (Kenrick, Neuberg, & Cialdini, 2010). The research on how anger reverses outgroup homogeneity is reported in Ackerman et al., 2006. For related research demonstrating enhanced efficiency in processing black men's faces by frightened white participants, see Becker et al., 2010. For research demonstrating that threat can increase stereotyped cognitive processing, see Shapiro et al., 2009.

45
Functional Projection:
The research demonstrating people's tendencies to project anger onto black men when frightened and men's tendencies to project sexual interest onto attractive women is discussed in Maner et al., 2005. For a related finding, see Haselton & Buss, 2000. The research demonstrating that darkness increases Canadian students' tendencies to see threats in black and Arab men is discussed in Schaller, Park, & Mueller, 2003. The scale measuring belief in a dangerous world is from Altemeyer, 1988. The research on brain activity in response to strange and familiar black men is reported in Phelps et al., 2000.

49
When Foreign Equals Disgusting:
Paul Rozin's research on disgust and social relationships is discussed in Rozin, Haidt, & McCauley, 2000. The research on foreignness and prejudice is reported in Faulkner, Schaller, Park, & Duncan, 2004. For related research, see Navarrete & Fessler, 2006, and Park, Faulkner, & Schaller, 2003.
Guns, Germs, and Steel
refers to Diamond, 1999. The research on pregnancy and ethnocentrism is reported in Navarrete, Fessler, & Eng, 2007.

52
Race and Politics:
For research examining different types of prejudice from an evolutionary perspective, see Cottrell & Neuberg, 2005.

54
The Fallacy of Biology's “Right Wing”:
The history of the political controversy surrounding sociobiology can be found in Segerstråle, 2000. The research examining the actual political attitudes of evolutionary psychologists is reported in Tybur, Miller, & Gangestad, 2008. The quotation about the transparent libertarian attack is from Rose & Rose, 2000, p. 8. See Gould & Lewontin, 1979, for an example of their anti-adaptationist writings. The two books I recommend for a discussion of the relevant evidence are Alcock, 2001, and Pinker, 2002.

57
If You Want to Fight Serpents:
See Kurzban, Tooby, & Cosmides, 2001, for a discussion of the erasability of race in evolutionary terms. The quotation is from Kingsolver, 1996, pp. 8, 9.

61
Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance:
By Robert Pirsig (1974), is a brilliant novel that takes place largely in Bozeman, Montana, where Pirsig was an assistant professor.

62
Middle-Aged Gent Seeking College Cheerleader:
The quotations on culture and age preferences come from Presser, 1975, p. 202, and from Peplau & Gordon, 1985, p. 261. The original article on the “trophy wife syndrome” was Connelly, 1989.

63
Reexamining the Evidence:
The research my colleagues and I conducted on age preferences was reported in Kenrick & Keefe, 1992; Kenrick, Gabrielidis, Keefe, & Cornelius, 1996; Buunk, Dijkstra, Kenrick, & Warntjes, 2001; and Buunk, Dijkstra, Fetchenhauer, & Kenrick, 2002.

66
Searching for Dirty Old Men Across Times and Cultures:
The research in this section is reported in Kenrick & Keefe, 1992. The data from earlier centuries in Amsterdam are discussed in Kenrick, Nieuweboer, & Buunk, 2010. Other cross-cultural studies we mention include Harpending, 1992, on African pastoralists and Otta, Queiroz, Campos, daSilva, & Silveira, 1998, on Brazilians.

69
A Startling Exception That Proves the Case:
The Tiwi are discussed in Hart and Pillig, 1960; the quotation is on page 25, emphasis in the original. I consider them in evolutionary perspective in Kenrick, Nieuweboer, & Buunk, 2010.

73
Blank Slates, Jukeboxes, and Coloring Books:
For a general critique of the blankslate viewpoint, see Pinker, 2002. For other research on cross-cultural consistencies in human behavior, see Buss, 1989; Jankowiak & Fisher, 1992; Daly & Wilson, 1988; Schmitt et al., 2003. For a discussion of the jukebox metaphor, see Tooby & Cosmides, 1992. For a discussion of the coloring book alternative, see Kenrick, Nieuweboer, & Buunk, 2010. For other research suggesting flexible but adaptive constraints on human behavior, see Gangestad, Haselton, & Buss, 2006.

78
Simple Minds:
For general discussions of the concept of modularity, see Sherry & Schacter, 1987; Barrett & Kurzban, 2006; Pinker, 1997; Cosmides & Tooby, 1992; and Kenrick, Sadalla, & Keefe, 1998.

78
Simple Minds and Domain-General Theories:
For a discussion of the reinforcement-affect model of attraction, see Clore & Byrne, 1974. For a brilliant attempt to apply the parsimonious behaviorist theory to all behavior, see Skinner, 1953. For my own research demonstrating more attraction toward people we meet under pleasant circumstances, see Kenrick & Johnson, 1979. The research showing that attractiveness may feel good or bad is reported in Kenrick, Montello, Gutierres, & Trost, 1993. Economic-exchange theories are described in Thibaut & Kelly, 1959, and Hatfield, Traupmann, Sprecher, Utne, & Hay, 1985.

81
Multiple Minds:
The classic study of conditioning biases is Garcia & Koelling, 1966. The research showing that conditioning works differently in quail and rats is reported in Wilcoxon, Dragoin, & Kral, 1971. The discussion of these findings in relation to different forms of memory in birds can be found in
Sherry & Schacter, 1987. Bat echolocation was documented in Galambos & Griffin, 1941.

85
Homosexuality and the Modular Mind:
Our research on homosexual's age preferences was reported in Kenrick, Keefe, Bryan, Barr, & Brown, 1995. Other research demonstrating similar preferences in homosexual and heterosexual men is reported in Bailey, Gaulin, Agyei, & Gladue, 1994, and VanderLaan & Vasey, 2008.

88
Is Friendship Akin to Kinship?:
Our research on the distinct systems involved in responding to friends and kin is reported in Ackerman, Kenrick, & Schaller, 2007. Other research examining reactions to incest includes Lieberman, Tooby, & Cosmides, 2003, 2007, and Fessler & Navarrete, 2004. The finding that people with kinlike features are “trustworthy, but not lustworthy” is reported in DeBruine, 2005.

91
So How Many Subselves Live Inside Your Head?:
The quotation is from James, 1890, p. 192. For further discussion of these issues, see Kenrick, Griskevicius, Neuberg, & Schaller, 2010; Kenrick & Shiota, 2008; and Neuberg, Kenrick, & Schaller, 2010. For a discussion of encapsulation of different mental systems, see Barrett & Kurzban, 2006. For the original notion of “subselves” in light of research on cognitive science, see Martindale, 1980.

97
Maslow's famous pyramid of motives:
Maslow introduced his idea of a motivational hierarchy in a paper in
Psychological Review
(1943). He expanded on those ideas in his book on motivation and personality (Maslow, 1970). You can find the iconic pyramid of needs reprinted in modern textbooks in general psychology and organizational behavior (e.g., Kreitner & Kinicki, 2008; Myers, 2009; Nairne, 2003). The behavioral view to which Maslow was reacting is well represented in N. Miller & Dollard, 1941.

99
Sex and the Meaning of Life:
Our attempt to rebuild the pyramid on a more solid evolutionary foundation is in Kenrick, Griskevicius, Neuberg, & Schaller, 2010.

104
The Evolutionary Functions of Fundamental Motives:
There is research suggesting that people and other animals might come to crave foods rich in particular nutrients lacking in their diets (e.g., Hughes & Dewar, 1971; Hughes & Wood-Grush, 1971; Rozin & Kalat, 1971). For research suggesting that pregnant women avoid foods that could damage the developing fetus, see Fessler, Eng, & Navarrete, 2005, and Profet, 1992. For research on the specificity of the fear system, see Öhman and Mineka, 2001, or Öhman, Lundqvist, & Esteves, 2001. The research on sharing among the Aché is discussed in K. Hill & Hurtado, 1989. For a discussion of the different systems involved in dealing with friends, families, and lovers, see Kenrick, 2006a, or Ackerman, Kenrick, & Schaller, 2007. For research linking creativity and mating, see Griskevicius, Cialdini, & Kenrick, 2006, which I will discuss in more detail in Chapter 9.

107
Life History Theory and the Developmental Hierarchy:
For discussion of life history theory, see Kaplan & Gangestad, 2005; Kenrick & Luce, 2000; or Stearns, Allal, & Mace, 2008.

110
Evolutionism, Humanism, and Positive Psychology:
See Maslow, 1970, for a discussion of the distinctions between humanistic psychology, behaviorism, and Freudian psychology. For some reactions to our renovation of Maslow, see Ackerman & Bargh, 2010; Kesibir, Graham, & Oishi, 2010; Lyubomirsky & Boehm, 2010; and Peterson & Park, 2010.

112
Proximate Motives:
For a review of the research suggesting that social rejection is registered with the same physiological mechanisms used to register physical pain, see MacDonald & Leary, 2005. For a discussion of later-developing motives that build upon rather than replace earlier ones, see Krebs & Van Hesteren, 1994.

115
I have what social psychologists . . . called a “flashbulb memory”:
The original paper on flashbulb memories is R. Brown & Kulik, 1971.

118
Cognitive Science Meets Evolutionary Psychology:
The traditional models of cognitive psychology are well described in Glass & Holyoak, 1986, or Seamon, 1980. For discussion of the different levels of information processing, see Craik & Lockhart, 1972. The argument that similar mental mechanisms are involved in different forms of information processing, from reading words to evaluating other people, can be found in Glass & Holyoak, 1986, and Markus & Zajonc, 1985. In
A Treatise of Human Nature
, written in 1739, David Hume said, “Reason is
, and ought only to be
, the slave of the passions” (emphasis added). 119
The Evolved Computer Inside Your Head:
The research on people's ability to recognize anger more quickly on a man's face and happiness more quickly on a woman's face is reported in Becker, Kenrick, Neuberg, Blackwell, & Smith, 2007. Darwin's evolutionary analysis of the communication function of emotional expressions can be found in his 1872 classic
The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals.
The research on change detection and attractive faces is reported in Duncan et al., 2007. For a general discussion of the links between fundamental motives and cognitive processes, see Kenrick, Neuberg, Griskevicius, Becker, & Schaller, 2010.

123
Remembrances of Things Not Past:
For a general discussion of counterfactual thinking, see Roese & Olson, 1997. The research on sex differences in counterfactual thinking is reported in Roese et al., 2006.