Smuggler Nation (74 page)

93
. On the rise of Medellín as a cocaine-export center, see Mary Roldan, “Colombia: Cocaine and the ‘Miracle’ of Modernity in Medellin,” in
Cocaine: Global Histories
ed. Paul Gootenberg (New York: Routledge, 1999), 166–67.

94
. On the mythical nature of Colombia’s “drug cartels,” see Michael Kenney,
From Pablo to Osama: Trafficking and Terrorist Networks, Government
Bureaucracies, and Competitive Adaptation
(University Park: Penn State Press, 2008), 88–90.

95
. Paul Eddy with Hugo Sabogal and Sarah Walden,
The Cocaine Wars
(New York: Norton, 1988), 98.

96
. Eddy et al.,
The Cocaine Wars
, 151.

97
. Wisotsky,
Beyond the War on Drugs
, 250; Office of National Drug Control Policy,
National Drug Control Strategy: Budget Summary
(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1994), 23, 184–85.

98
. Arnold S. Trebach,
Great Drug War
(New York: Macmillan, 1987), 152.

99
. “Major Crime Package Cleared by Congress,”
Congressional Quarterly Almanac
40 (1984): 213–24.

100
. Trebach,
Great Drug War
, 184.

101
. See, for example, the discussion in Craig Reinarman and Harry Levine, “Crack in Context: Politics and Media in the Making of a Drug Scare,”
Contemporary Drug Problems
16, no. 4 (Winter 1989): 537–39, 555–59.

102
. “Four Key Issues Playing Role in Congressional Contests,”
Congressional Quarterly
, 18 October 1986, 2599.

103
. Chris Adams, “Second Thoughts on the Military as Narcs,”
Washington Post
, 15 June 1988.

104
. See the report from the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations
Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy
(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1989). See also Peter Dale Scott and Jonathan Marshall,
Cocaine Politics: Drugs, Armies, and the CIA in Central America
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).

105
. Quoted in Elaine Sciolino with Stephen Engelberg, “Fighting Narcotics: U.S. Is Urged to Shift Tactics,”
New York Times
, 10 April 1988.

106
. “Text of Address by President Bush,”
Washington Post
, 6 September 1989.

107
. Poll cited in Tom Wicker, “The Wartime Spirit,”
New York Times
, 3 October 1989.

108
. “National Drug Control Strategy: Budget Summary” (Washington, DC: White House, 1992), 23; Office of National Drug Control Policy,
National Drug Control Strategy Budget Summary
(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1994), 184–85.

109
. Lawrence Korb, assistant secretary of defense, quoted in “Faced with Peace, Pentagon Wants to Enlist in Drug War,”
The State
(Columbia, SC), 17 December 1989.

110
. Quoted in “Faced with Peace, Pentagon Wants to Enlist in Drug War,”
The State
(Columbia, SC), 17 December 1989. Military officials have made similar arguments. For example, Lt. Charles L. Diaz explained: “DoD should consider expanding its funding justification to include increased federal funds for its ‘new’ drug detection and monitoring mission.… Shifting the emphasis of a portion of DoD’s budget toward its new peace-time mission will help DoD retain certain resources and manpower while satisfying domestic pressure to increase the drug interdiction effort.” Diaz, “DoD Plays in the Drug War,”
Proceedings/Naval Review
116, no. 5 (1990): 84, 86.

111
. David C. Morrison, “Police Action,”
National Journal
24, no. 5 (1992): 267–70.

112
. Morrison, “Police Action,” 268.

113
. Eric Schmitt, “Colorado Bunker Built for Cold War Shifts Focus to Drug Battle,”
New York Times
, 18 July 1993; William Matthews, “Toys Dusted Off for War on Drugs,”
Federal Times
, 16 April 1990; “DOD Studies X-Ray Techniques for Examining Cargo Containers,”
Drug Enforcement Report
, 23 May 1994; Frank Greve, “Ailing Defense Contractors Urged to Arm the Drug War,”
Miami Herald
, 15 July 1990.

114
. Michael Isikoff and Patrick E. Tyler, “U.S. Military Given Foreign Arrest Powers,”
Washington Post
, 16 December 1989.

115
. Sciolino with Engelberg, “Fighting Narcotics.” More generally, see John Dinges,
Our Man in Panama
(New York: Random House, 1991).

116
. Jeff Gerth, “CIA Shedding Its Reluctance to Aid in Fight Against Drugs,”
New York Times
, 25 March 1990.

117
. For a detailed account, see Mark Bowden,
Killing Pablo: The Hunt for the World’s Greatest Outlaw
(New York: Penguin, 2002).

118
. See especially Peter B. Kraska, ed.,
Militarizing the American Criminal Justice System: The Changing Roles of the Armed Forces and the Police
(Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2001).

119
. Curtis Stiner, “U.S. Legal Group Debates Reform as Drug Cases Inundate System,”
Christian Science Monitor
, 12 February 1990; Ronald Ostrow, “In Ranking Jailers, U.S. Easily No. 1,”
Los Angeles Times
, 11 February 1992; and Mark Pazniokas, “Tough Stands on Crime May Ignore Reality,”
Hartford Current
, 20 October 1994.

120
. “Off with Their Heads? Thoughts from the Drug Czar,”
Washington Post
, 20 June 1989.

121
. Office of National Drug Control Policy,
National Drug Control Strategy: Budget Summary
(1995), 235.

122
. Schlosser,
Reefer Madness
, 48.

123
. All figures are from Office of National Drug Control Policy,
National Drug Control Strategy
(1995), 144–45.

124
. See U.S. Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration, “A Chronicle of Federal Drug Law Enforcement,”
Drug Enforcement
7, no. 2 (1980): 52–64; Office of National Drug Control Policy,
National Drug Control Strategy Budget Summary
(1994), 12.

125
. Office of National Drug Control Policy,
National Drug Control Strategy Budget Summary
(1994), 140–41.

126
. Office of National Drug Control Policy,
National Drug Control Strategy Budget Summary
(1994), 144.

127
. Sid Balman Jr. “An Electronic Picket Faces Smugglers,”
Air Force Times
, 18 June 1990.

128
. This paragraph draws from Schlosser,
Reefer Madness
, 14, 71.

129
. Paul Gootenberg, “Cocaine’s Long March North, 1900–2010,”
Latin American Politics and Society
54, no. 1 (Spring 2012): 168.

130
. Michael Matza, “‘Narc’ No More,”
Philadelphia Inquirer
, 2 April 1990.

Chapter 15

1
. Jorge A. Hernandez, “Trading Across the Border: National Customs Guards in Nuevo Leon,”
Southwestern Historical Quarterly
100, no. 4 (1997): 433–51.

2
. Brian Delay, “19th Century Lessons for Today’s Drug-War Policies,”
Chronicle of Higher Education
, 27 July 2009.

3
. Rachel St. John,
Line in the Sand: A History of the Western U.S.-Mexico Border
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011), 99–100.

4
. St. John,
Line in the Sand
, 203, and
chapter 5
,

5
. Quoted in George T. Diaz,
Contrabandista Communities: States and Smugglers in the Lower Rio Grande Borderlands, 1848–1945
(Ph.D. dissertation, Southern Methodist University, 2010), 111.

6
. Louis R. Sadler, “The Historical Dynamics of Smuggling in the U.S.-Mexican Border Region, 1550–1998,” in
Organized Crime and Democratic Governability: Mexico and the U.S.-Mexican Borderlands
, ed. John Bailey and Roy Godson (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2000), 164.

7
. St. John,
Line in the Sand
, 122–23. Also see Charles H. Harris III and Louis R. Sadler,
The Border and the Revolution: Clandestine Activities of the Mexican Revolution, 1910–1920
(Silver City, NM: High Lonesome, 1988). On the particular importance of El Paso, see Harris and Sadler’s
The Secret War in El Paso: Mexican Revolutionary Intrigue, 1906–1920
(Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2009),
chapters 6
and
16
.

8
. Ethan A. Nadelmann,
Cops Across Borders: The Internationalization of U.S. Criminal Law Enforcement
(University Park: Penn State Press, 1993), 30.

9
. See especially George T. Diaz, “Twilight of the Tequileros: Prohibition Era Smuggling in the South Texas Borderlands, 1919–1933,” in
Smugglers, Brothels, and Twine: Historical Perspectives on Contraband and Vice in North America’s Borderlands
, ed. Elaine Carey and Andrae M. Marak (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2011).

10
. See St. John,
Line in the Sand
,
chapter 6
. On Tijuana’s development as the premier vice district, see especially Paul J. Vanderwood,
Satan’s Playground: Mobsters and Movie Stars at America’s Greatest Gaming Resort
(Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010).

11
. See Timothy Green,
The Smugglers: An Investigation into the World of the Contemporary Smuggler
(New York: Walker, 1969), 292.

12
. Tom Miller,
On the Border: Portraits of America’s Southwestern Frontier
(New York: Harper & Row, 1981): 52.

13
. Marshall Carter, “Law, Order, and the Border: El Paso Del Norte” (revision of a paper prepared for the annual meeting of the National Council on Geographic Education, Mexico City, November 1979), 6.

14
. Sadler, “The Historical Dynamics of Smuggling in the U.S.-Mexican Border Region, 1550–1998,” 175.

15
. Kitty Calavita,
Inside the State: The Bracero Program, Immigration, and the INS
(New York: Routledge, 1992).

16
. Quoted in Kelly Lytle Hernandez,
Migra! A History of the U.S. Border Patrol
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010), 196.

17
. See Kitty Calavita, “U.S. Immigration and Policy Responses: The Limits of Legislation,” in
Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective
, ed. Wayne Cornelius et al. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994), 60.

18
. See Comptroller General of the United States,
Smugglers, Illicit Documents, and Schemes Are Undermining U.S. Controls over Immigration: Report to Congress by the Comptroller General of the United States
(Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 30 August 1976), 5–6, 18.

19
. Comptroller General of the United States,
Illegal Entry at United States–Mexico Border: Multiagency Enforcement Efforts Have Not Been Effective in Stemming the Flow of Drugs and People
,
Report to the Congress by Comptroller General of the United States
(Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2 December 1977), 7.

20
. INS annual report, 1978, cited in Sherrie A. Kossoudji, “Playing Cat and Mouse at the U.S.-Mexican Border,”
Demography
29, no. 2 (1992): 161.

21
. Josiah Heyman calls this dynamic the “voluntary departure complex.” See his “Putting Power into the Anthropology of Bureaucracy: The Immigration and Naturalization Service at the Mexico-United States Border,”
Current Anthropology
36, no. 2 (1995): 261–87.

22
. Domestic Council’s Committee on Illegal Aliens, Preliminary Report, December 1976, quoted in Comptroller General of the United States,
Illegal Entry at United States-Mexico Border
, 17.

23
. Quoted in Katrina Burgess and Carlos Gonzalez Gutierrez, “Reluctant Partner: California in U.S.-Mexico Relations” (unpublished manuscript, n.d.), 29–30.

24
.
Migration News
, February 1998.

25
. News conference with Doris Meissner and Janet Reno, Washington, DC, 12 January 1996.

26
. For a more detailed account, see Timothy J. Dunn,
Blockading the Border and Human Rights: The El Paso Operation That Remade Immigration Enforcement
(Austin: University of Texas Press, 2009).

27
. See especially Joseph Nevins,
Operation Gatekeeper and Beyond: The War on “Illegals” and the Remaking of the U.S.-Mexico Boundary
, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2010).