Stamped From the Beginning: The Definitive History of Racist Ideas in America (80 page)

6
. Dorothy E. Roberts,
Fatal Invention: How Science, Politics, and Big Business Re-Create Race in the Twenty-First Century
(New York: New Press, 2011), 29–30; Bethencourt,
Racisms
, 252–253.

7
. Harriet A. Washington,
Medical Apartheid: The Dark History of Medical Experimentation on Black Americans from Colonial Times to the Present
(New York: Harlem Moon, 2006), 83; Thomas C. Holt,
Children of Fire: A History of African Americans
(New York: Hill and Wang, 2010), 21.

8
. Holt,
Children of Fire
, 19–21; Thomas,
Slave Trade
, 399–402.

9
. Voltaire,
Additions to the Essay on General History
, trans. T. Franklin et al., vol. 22,
The Works of M. De Voltaire
(London: Crowder et al., 1763), 227–228, 234.

10
. Thomas,
Slave Trade
, 464–465.

11
. Bethencourt,
Racisms
, 165–166, 172–173, 178; Roberts,
Fatal Invention
, 31–32.

12
. Georges Louis Leclerc Buffon,
Natural History of Man
, new ed., vol. 1 (London: J. Annereau, 1801), 78–79, 83–94; Georges Louis Leclerc Buffon,
Natural History, General and Particular
, trans. William Smellie, 20 vols., vol. 3 (London: T. Cadell et al., 1812), 440–441; Johann Joachim Winckelmann,
History of the Art of Antiquity
, trans. Harry Francis Mallgrave (Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2006), 192–195.

13
. Thomas Jefferson, “To John Adams,” in
The Writings of Thomas Jefferson
, ed. H. A. Washington (Washington, DC: Taylor and Maury, 1854), 61.

14
. Silvio A. Bedini,
Thomas Jefferson: Statesman of Science
(New York: Macmillan, 1990), 12–13.

15
. Thomas Jefferson,
Notes on the State of Virginia
(London: J. Stockdale, 1787), 271.

16
. Samuel Davies, “The Duty of Christians to Propagate Their Religion Among the Heathens,” in
Proslavery and Sectional Thought in the Early South, 1740–1829: An Anthology
, ed. Jeffrey Robert Young (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2006), 113; Peter Kalm, “Travels into North America,” in
A General Collection of the Best and Most Interesting Voyages and Travels in All Parts of the World
, ed. John Pinkerton (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, and Orme, 1812), 503; Landon Carter,
The Diary of Colonel Landon Carter of Sabine Hall, 1752–1778
, 2 vols., vol. 2 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1965), 1149.

17
. Thomas P. Slaughter,
The Beautiful Soul of John Woolman, Apostle of Abolition
(New York: Hill and Wang, 2008), 94–133.

18
. John Woolman,
Some Considerations on the Keeping of Negroes
(Philadelphia: Tract Association of Friends, 1754), 4.

19
. Geoffrey Gilbert Plank,
John Woolman’s Path to the Peaceable Kingdom: A Quaker in the British Empire
(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), 105–109.

20
. Ibid., 110; Slaughter,
Beautiful Soul
, 194–196; John Woolman, “The Journal of John Woolman,” in
The Journal and Major Essays of John Woolman
, ed. Phillips P. Moulton (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), 63.

21
. Slaughter,
Beautiful Soul
, 231–236; Plank,
John Woolman’s Path
, 175–177.

22
. John Woolman,
Considerations on Keeping Negroes: Part Second
(Philadelphia: B. Franklin and D. Hall, 1762), 24, 30.

23
. Slaughter,
Beautiful Soul
, 173; Plank,
John Woolman’s Path
, 133, 149–153; Woolman,
Journal and Major Essays
, 53–57, 75–78.

24
. Jon Meacham,
Thomas Jefferson: The Art of Power
(New York: Random House, 2012), 11–12.

25
. Ibid., 39, 44–45; Bedini,
Thomas Jefferson
, 34, 39, 49.

26
. Henry Wiencek,
Master of the Mountain: Thomas Jefferson and His Slaves
(New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2012), 24–26; Meacham,
Thomas Jefferson
, 47–49.

CHAPTER 8: BLACK EXHIBITS

1
. Henry Louis Gates,
The Trials of Phillis Wheatley: America’s First Black Poet and Her Encounters with the Founding Fathers
(New York: Basic Civitas, 2010), 14.

2
. Vincent Carretta,
Phillis Wheatley: Biography of a Genius in Bondage
(Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2011), 4–5, 7–8, 12–14; Kathrynn Seidler Engberg,
The Right to Write: The Literary Politics of Anne Bradstreet and Phillis Wheatley
(Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2010), 35–36.

3
. Carretta,
Phillis Wheatley
, 1–17, 37–38.

4
. Ibid., 46–47, 58–59, 66–67, 82–83.

5
. Gates,
Trials of Phillis Wheatley
, 27–29.

6
. Edward Long,
The History of Jamaica
, 3 vols., vol. 2 (London: T. Lowndes, 1774), 476, 483.

7
. David Hume, “Of Natural Characters,” in
Essays and Treatises on Several Subjects
, ed. David Hume (London: T. Cadell, 1793), 206n512.

8
. Silvia Sebastiani,
The Scottish Enlightenment: Race, Gender, and the Limits of Progress
(New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 103–104.

9
. Adams and Sanders,
Alienable Rights
, 26–29.

10
. Ignatius Sancho and Joseph Jekyll,
Letters of the Late Ignatius Sancho, an African
, 2 vols. (London: J. Nichols, 1782).

11
. Ukawsaw Gronniosaw,
A Narrative of the Most Remarkable Particulars in the Life of James Albert, Ukawsaw Gronniosaw
(Newport, RI: S. Southwick, 1774); Olaudah Equiano,
The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African
, 2 vols. (New York: W. Durell, 1791).

12
. Benjamin Rush,
An Address to the Inhabitants of the British Settlements in America, on the Slavery of Negroes in America
(Philadelphia: John Dunlap, 1773), 2, 3, 8, 15, 16, 26.

13
. Carretta,
Phillis Wheatley
, 91, 95–98; Gates,
Trials of Phillis Wheatley
, 33–34; Phillis Wheatley,
Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral
(London: A. Bell, 1773).

14
. Peter N. Stearns,
Sexuality in World History
(New York: Routledge, 2009), 108; Lester B. Scherer, “A New Look at Personal Slavery Established,”
William and Mary Quarterly
30 (1973): 645–646; Richard Nisbet,
Slavery Not Forbidden by Scripture, or, a Defence of the West-India Planters
(Philadelphia: John Sparhawk, 1773), 23.

15
. Wiencek,
Master of the Mountain
, 26–27, 33–34; Meacham,
Thomas Jefferson
, 69–70, 90–91.

16
. Holt,
Children of Fire
, 104; Vincent Harding,
There Is a River: The Black Struggle for Freedom in America
(New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1981), 43.

17
. Long,
History of Jamaica
, 2:356, 364, 371, 475–478.

18
. Henry Home of Kames,
Sketches of the History of Man
, 4 vols., vol. 1 (Edinburgh: W. Creech, 1807), 15.

19
. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, “On the Natural Variety of Mankind,” in
The Anthropological Treatises of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
, ed. Thomas Bendyshe (London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, and Green, 1865), 98–100n4.

20
. Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze, ed.,
Race and the Enlightenment: A Reader
(Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1997), 38–64.

21
. González and Torres,
News for All the People
, 28–29; Meacham,
Thomas Jefferson
, 97.

22
. Waldstreicher,
Runaway America
, 211–212; Samuel Johnson,
Taxation No Tyranny: An Answer to the Resolutions and Address of the American Congress
(London: T. Cadell, 1775), 89.

CHAPTER 9:
CREATED
EQUAL

1
. Meacham,
Thomas Jefferson
, 103.

2
. Wiencek,
Master of the Mountain
, 27–29 (emphasis added).

3
. Jacqueline Jones,
A Dreadful Deceit: The Myth of Race from the Colonial Era to Obama’s America
(New York: BasicBooks, 2013), 64.

4
. Roediger,
How Race Survived U.S. History
, 31–32, 41–42.

5
. Robert L. Hetzel, “The Relevance of Adam Smith,” in
Invisible Hand: The Wealth of Adam Smith
, ed. Andres Marroquin (Honolulu: University Press of the Pacific, 2002), 25–29; Adam Smith,
An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
, 2 vols., vol. 1 (London: W. Strahan and T. Cadell, 1776), 25; Adam Smith,
An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
, 9th ed., 3 vols., vol. 2 (London: A. Strahan, T. Cadell, and W. Davies, 1799), 454.

6
. Thomas Jefferson, “Jefferson’s ‘Original Rough Draught’ of the Declaration of Independence,” in
The Papers of Thomas Jefferson
, vol. 1,
1760–1776
, ed. Julian P. Boyd (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1950), 243–247.

7
. Samuel Hopkins,
A Dialogue, Concerning the Slavery of the Africans
(Norwich, CT: Judah P. Spooner, 1776).

8
. Joseph J. Ellis,
American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson
(New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997), 27–71; Meacham,
Thomas Jefferson
, 106.

9
. Jefferson,
Notes on the State of Virginia
, 229.

10
. Roediger,
How Race Survived U.S. History
, 46.

11
. Jefferson,
Notes on the State of Virginia
, 229.

12
. Ibid., 232–234.

13
. Herbert Aptheker,
Anti-Racism in U.S. History: The First Two Hundred Years
(New York: Greenwood Press, 1992), 47–48.

14
. Jefferson,
Notes on the State of Virginia
, 231–232.