The Chimp and the River: How AIDS Emerged from an African Forest (17 page)

36.
revealed that the virus was quite prevalent among them
: Murphey-Corb et al. (1986), 437.

36.
Other investigators soon found it too
: Hirsch et al. (1989), 389, and its citation notes 9–11.

37.
Now there were three known variants
: Kanki (1986); Daniel et al. (1985). The SIV name came later, however, after they stopped using HTLV and STLV.

37.
“These results suggest that SIV
sm
has infected macaques”
: Hirsch et al. (1989), 389.

38.
HIV-2 is confined mostly to West African countries
: this sentence and the next three, Reeves and Doms (2002), 1254–1255.

39.
Peeters along with several associates was tasked
: this paragraph, Peeters et al. (1989), 625–626.

40.
announcing the new virus and calling it SIV
cpz
: Peeters et al. (1989), 625, 627. More precisely, they called it SIV
_cpz-GAB-1,
indicating not just the new strain of virus but the identity of the specific isolate.

40.
“It has been suggested that human AIDS”
: Peeters et al. (1989), 629.

40.
In 1992
Peeters published another
: Peeters et al. (1992), 448.

41.
not a single one had yielded traces of SIV
cpz
: Sharp and Hahn (2010), 2488.

42.
by the year 2000 seven groups of HIV-2
: Reeves and Doms (2002), 1253.

43.
So did the later addition, group H
: Santiago et al. (2005), 12515.

43.
The eventual fourth kind, group P:
Plantier et al. (2009), 1–2.

43.
Scientists think that each of those twelve groups
: Reeves and Doms (2002), 1253 regarding HIV-2; Sharp and Hahn (2010), 2487, regarding HIV-1.

44.
In September of that year, a young print-shop worker
: Zhu and Ho (1995), 503; Hooper (1999)
,
21–22, 122 ff.

44.
Thirty-one years later, in the era of AIDS
: Corbitt et al. (1990), cited in Zhu and Ho (1995).

45.
must have reflected a laboratory mistake
: Zhu and Ho (1995), 503–504.

45.
A team of researchers including Tuofu Zhu
: Zhu and Ho (1995), 503–504.

45.
a small tube of blood plasma, drawn from a Bantu man
: Nahmias et al. (1986), 1279.

45.
the only one that tested unambiguously positive
: Zhu et al. (1998), 594.

46.
In their paper, published in February 1998
: Zhu et al. (1998).

46.
DRC60 was a biopsy specimen
: Worobey et al. (2008), 661.

50.
with a spillover as early as 1908
: Worobey et al. (2008), 661.

51.
This one was heterodox and highly controversial
: Hooper (2001), 803. Hooper presents somewhat different numbers in Hooper (1999)
,
265–277, 378–379.

51.
viral or bacterial contamination of a vaccine
: e.g., with SV40 in some of the Salk vaccines, Shah and Nathanson (1976), 3.

51.
a group of Italian children
: Willrich (2001), 181.

51.
Smallpox vaccine administered to kids in Camden
: Willrich (2001), 171–176, 192, 201.

51.
a batch of diphtheria antitoxin prepared in St. Louis
: Willrich (2001), 178.

51.
Formaldehyde was sometimes added
: Oshinsky (2006), 281.

52.
some of the early batches of the Salk polio vaccine
: Shah and Nathanson (1976), 2; Shah (2004), 2061.

52.
That the vaccine in question had been given to Africans
: Koprowski (2001); Plotkin (2001).

52.
Koprowski himself visited Stanleyville
: Hooper (1999), 267–273, 523–524.

52.
Children and adults lined up trustingly
: Hooper (1999), 268–269, 273–274.

52.
roughly seventy-five thousand kids
: Hooper (1999), 275.

53.
chimpanzee kidneys drawn from animals infected
: Hooper (2001), 803–805, versus Plotkin (2001), 815–816.

53.
The result of that flawed vaccinating
: Hooper (2001), 803.

53.
certain people have argued
: e.g., Hooper, Louis Pascal, William Hamilton, Tom Curtis.

53.
had put Tom Curtis onto the story
: i.e., Blaine Elswood, as mentioned in Curtis (1992), 3 (pagination of digital version).

53.
“The origin of the AIDS virus is of no importance”
: Curtis (1992), 21.

53.
“It’s distracting, it’s nonproductive”
: Curtis (1992), 21.

53.
lawyers for Hilary Koprowski filed a lawsuit
: Hooper (1999), 254, 456.

54.
“The controversy surrounding the source of the Nile”
: Hooper (1999), 4.

59.
he screened just 27 of the 813 tissue blocks
: Worobey (2008), 661, 663.

60.
They both fell within the range
: Worobey (2008), 661–662.

60.
differed by 12 percent between the two versions
: actually, 11.7 percent: Worobey (2008), 662.

60.
he placed the most recent common ancestor
: Worobey (2008), 663, Table 1.

60.
“Our estimation of divergence times”
: Worobey (2008), 663.

62.
“the most persuasive evidence yet”
: Weiss and Wrangham (1999), 385.

62.
their analysis of viral strains linked it
: Gao et al. (1999), 436–437.

62.
on viruses drawn from captive chimps
: the new chimp in Gao’s data was Marilyn, captive in the United States: Gao et al. (1999), 437.

63.
Mario L. Santiago topped a list of coauthors
: Santiago et al. (2002), 465.

63.
he invented methods
: Santiago et al. (2002), 465.

65.
they collected 446 samples of chimpanzee dung
: Keele et al. (2006), 523.

66.
prevalence rates up to 35 percent
: Keele et al. (2006), 525, map on 523.

66.
a twig amid the same little branch
: Keele et al. (2006), 524–525, Figures 3 and 4.

67.
shockingly similar to HIV-1 group M
: Keele et al. (2006), 525.

68.
“We show here that the SIV
cpz
_Ptt
strain”:
Keele et al. (2006), 526.

68.
“In humans, direct exposure to animal blood”
: Hahn et al. (2000), 611.

68.
“The likeliest route of chimpanzee-to-human transmission”
: Sharp and Hahn (2010), 2492.

70.
Léopoldville contained fewer than ten thousand people
: Worobey (2008), 663, Figure 3 and its caption, citing Chitnis et al. (2000).

70.
“a hard mission field,” according to one Swedish missionary
: Martin (2002), 20, 25.

70.
due to colonial policies that discouraged married men
: Pepin (2011), 70–73. The rest of this paragraph, and the next: Pepin (2011).

71.
a lively market in smoked fish
: Harms (1981)
,
229.

71.
Ivory, rubber, and slaves were traded there
: Harms (1981), 227–229.

72.
By 1940, its population had edged up
: Chitnis et al. (2000), 6.

74.
apes, elephants, lions, and a few other species were protected
:
Wildlife Justice,
No. 2 (May 2006), 8.

74.
Drori gave me a LAGA newsletter
:
Wildlife Justice
, No. 4 (November 2006).

74.
Drori’s newsletter mentioned a raid
:
Wildlife Justice,
No. 4 (November 2006), 5.

75.
Another bust, against a dealer
:
Wildlife Justice,
No. 4 (November 2006), 5;
Wildlife Justice,
No. 2 (May 2006), 2, 12.

76.
a driver unloading chimpanzee arms and legs
: Peterson (2003), 46, 159.

76.
roughly 5 million metric tons of bushmeat
: Peterson (2003), 65.

80.
where Karl Amman saw chimpanzee arms stashed
: Peterson (2003), 46.

80.
Chimp fecal samples from hereabouts
: Keele et al. (2006), 525.

84.
possibly of the Mpiemu or the Kako
: Giles-Vernick (2002), 22.

94.
A study of bushmeat traffic in and around Ouesso
: this sentence and the rest of the paragraph: Hennessey and Rogers (2008), 179–183.

109.
the prevailing impression was that it’s harmless in chimpanzees
: e.g., Novembre et al. (1997), 11748, 11752.

109.
When a single lab chimpanzee did progress to AIDS
: Novembre et al. (1997), 4086.

110.
“survived their own AIDS-like pandemic”
: Cohen (2002), 15. Cohen was reporting on de Groot et al. (2002).

110.
a naturally occurring infection in more than forty different species
: Sharp and Hahn (2010), 2487.

110.
it hasn’t shown up among wild monkeys in either Asia
: Sharp and Hahn (2010), 2487.

110.
none of those SIVs seems to cause immunodeficiency
: Sharp and Hahn (2010), 2490.

110.
a close similarity between their respective SIVs
: Sharp et al. (2005), 3893.

111.
That length of time would allow divergence
: Sharp et al. (2005), 3893.

111.
noticed that SIV
cpz
seems to be a hybrid virus
: Bailes et al. (2003), 1713.

111.
Possibly just hundreds of years ago
: Wertheim and Worobey (2009), 5–6; Pepin (2011), 41, citing Wertheim and Worobey (2009).

112.
What the Nottingham group suggested
: Bailes (2003), 1713.

124.
these all came together in a paper
: Keele et al. (2009), 515.

126.
a series of well-intended campaigns
: Pepin (2011), 117; Pepin and Labbé (2008).

127.
2 million syringes were produced globally in 1930
: Drucker et al. (2001), 1989. See also Marx et al. (2001), 914.

127.
treated 5,347 trypanosomiasis cases
: Pepin (2011), 122, 163.

127.
“The Congo contains various health institutions”
: Beheyt (1953), quoted in Pepin (2011), 164.

128.
“The large number of patients”
: Beheyt (1953), quoted in Pepin (2011), 164.

128.
performed 207,089 injections
of tryparsamide
: this sentence and the rest of the paragraph: Pepin (2011), 125–128.

128.
doubt that needles were necessary in any such way
: Worobey (2008), in Volberding et al. (2008), 18.

129.
It dates back more than a decade
: Marx et al. (2001), 911.

129.
Jacques Pepin picked up where Preston Marx left off
: Pepin and Frost (2011), 421–422.

130.
a clinic known as the Dispensaire Antivénérien
: Pepin (2011), 160.

130.
“consisted of thousands of asymptomatic free women”
: Pepin (2011), 161.

130.
Any free woman or male migrant
: this sentence and the rest of the paragraph, Pepin (2011), 160–163.

132.
The HIV-1 group M lineage became split
: Taylor et al. (2008), 1591; Worobey (2008), in Volberding (2008), 15.

132.
Subtype A got to East Africa
: Pepin (2011), 212–213.

132.
Subtype D established itself alongside subtypes A and C
: Taylor et al. (2008), 1595, Table 2; Hemelaar et al. (2006), W17, Table 2, and W18, Table 3.

133.
subtype B crossed from Lé
opoldville to Haiti
: Gilbert et al. (2007), 18566, 18568, Figure 2.

133.
new support for one plausible old scenario
: The recognition of Haitian professionals having gone to Congo after Independence dates back at least to Shilts (1987), 392–393. This paragraph and the next: Pepin (2011), 187–190.

134.
Someone brought back to Haiti
: Gilbert et al. (2007), 18566.

134.
those samples revealed that 7.8 percent of the women
: Boulos et al. (1990), 7222–7223, and cited in Pepin (2011), 196.

134.
“there must have been a very effective amplification mechanism”
: Pepin (2011), 196.

135.
hundreds of paid plasma donors in Mexico
: Pepin (2011), 199.

135.
a quarter million luckless donors in China
: Pepin (2011), 200.

135.
reports of a plasmapheresis center in Port-au-Prince
: Pepin (2011), 201–202; Severo (1972). Pepin cites Severo, but I used Severo directly. Pepin hyphenates the name, Hemo-Caribbean, but Severo doesn’t and there’s still such a company, listed online as Hemo Caribbean.

136.
ordered that Gorinstein’s
plasmapheresis center be closed
: Pepin (2011), 202.

136.
Nor did the CDC’s
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
mention it
:
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report,
July 9, 1982, 31(26): 354.

136.
Randy Shilts didn’t mention it
: though he came close, discussing Haitians and blood, e.g., Shilts (1987), 135.

137.
beginning in 1980 he noticed
: Pitchenik et al. (1983), 277, 278, table.

137.
He had sounded the first alarm about Haitians
:
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report,
July 9, 1982, 31(26): 354ff.

138.
Tom Gilbert managed to amplify
: Gilbert et al. (2007), 18569.