The Indian Ocean (73 page)

81 Earl,
The Eastern Seas
, pp. 23–4.

82 Broeze et al., 'Imperial Ports of the Indian Ocean', p. 5.

83 Broeze et al., 'Engineering and Empire', pp. 270–1 and passim for engineering works in ports around the littoral.

84 K. Dharmasena, 'Colombo: Gateway and Oceanic Hub of Shipping', in Broeze, ed.,
Brides of the Sea
, pp. 154 et seq.; K. Dharmasena, 'The Port and Dock Workers of Colombo, 1860–1960',
Great Circle
, VII, 2, p. 104 et seq.

85 Indu Banga, 'Karachi and its Hinterland under Colonial Rule', in Indu Banga, ed.,
Ports and their Hinterlands in India, 1700–1950
, New Delhi, Manohar, 1992, pp. 337–58.

86 Tindall,
City of Gold
, pp. 24–8 for a good description.

87 I.S. van Dongen, 'Mombasa in the Land and Sea Exchange of East Africa',
Erdkunde
, 17, 1963, pp. 16–38; B.S. Hoyle, 'Maritime Perspectives on Ports and Port Systems: The Case of East Africa', in Broeze, ed.,
Brides of the Sea,
pp. 188–206.

88 Broeze et al., 'Imperial Ports of the Indian Ocean', p. 2.

89 Broeze et al., 'Imperial Ports and the Modern World Economy', pp. 18–19.

90 Arnold,
Science, Technology and Medicine
, p. 102.

91 Satpal Sangwan, 'The Sinking Ships: Colonial Policy and the Decline of Indian Shipping, 1735–1835', in Roy MacLeod and Deepak Kumar, eds,
Technology and the Raj: Western Technology and Technical Transfers to India, 1700–1947
, New Delhi, Sage, 1995, pp. 137–52.

92 For all of this see Frank Broeze's seminal article, 'Underdevelopment and Dependence: Maritime India under the Raj',
Modern Asian Studies
, XVIII, 1984, pp. 429–57.

93 Lakshmi Subramanian,
Indigenous Capital and Imperial Expansion: Bombay, Surat, and the West Coast
, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 15.

94 Hans-Dieter Evers, 'Chettiar Moneylenders in Southeast Asia', in Denys Lombard and Jean Aubin, eds,
Marchands et hommes d'affairs asiatiques dans l'Océan Indien et la Mer de Chine 13e-20e siècles
, Paris, Editions de l'Ecole des hautes études en sciences sociales, 1988, pp. 199–219. For the notion of circulation see Claude Markovits,
The Global World of Indian Merchants
, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000.

95 Desh Gupta, 'South Asians in East Africa: Achievement and Discrimination', in Lance Brennan and Brij Lal, eds,
South Asia
, 1998, XXI, special issue, 'Across the Kala Pani: Indian Overseas Migration and Settlement', p. 106.

96 Richard F. Burton,
Zanzibar, City, Island and Coast
, Vol. II, London, Tinsley Brothers, 1872, pp. 327–8.

97 Quoted in Gervase Clarence-Smith, 'Indian Business Communities in the Western Indian Ocean in the Ninteenth Century',
Indian Ocean Review
, II, 4, December 1989, p. 20.

98 Earl,
The Eastern Seas
, pp. 177–8.

99 Rhys Richards, 'The Maritime Fur Trade: Sealers and Other Residents on St Paul and Amsterdam Islands',
Great Circle
, VI, 1 and 2, 1984, pp. 24–42 and 93–109.

100 Pfeiffer,
A Lady's Second Journey
, p. 148. For slavery see Gervase Clarence-Smith, ed.,
The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century
, London, Cass, 1989.

101 Generally see K. McPherson, et al., 'The social expansion', in Friedland, ed.,
Maritime Aspects
, pp. 427–40.

102 Hugh Tinker,
A New System of Slavery: The Export of Indian Labour Overseas, 1830–1920
, London, Oxford University Press, 1974, and for a more positive view David Northrup,
Indentured Labour in the Age of Imperialism, 1834–1922
, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1995. For Indians see Lance Brennan and Brij Lal, eds, 'Across the Kala Pani: Indian Overseas Migration and Settlement',
South Asia
, XXI, 1998, Special Issue.

103 Robert C.-H. Shell, 'Islam in Southern Africa, 1652–1998', in Nehemia Levtzion and Randall L. Pouwels, eds,
The History of Islam in Africa
, Athens, Ohio, Ohio University Press, 2000, p. 339.

104 The standard work is Marina Carter,
Servants, Sirdars and Settlers: Indians in Mauritius, 1834–1874
, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1995. Also Tayyab Mahmud, 'Colonial Migrations and Post-Colonial Identities in South Asia',
South Asia
, XXIII, 1, 2000, pp. 90–2.

105 Ralph Shlomowitz, 'Mortality of Indian Labour on Ocean Voyages, 1843–1917',
Studies in History
, Delhi, VI, 1, January 1990, pp. 35–65.

106 Moti Lal Bhargava
, Indian Ocean Strategies through the Ages, with Rare and Antique Maps,
New Delhi, Reliance Publishing House, 1990, p. 132.

107 David Arnold, 'The Indian Ocean as a Disease Zone, 1500–1950',
South Asia
, 14, 1991, pp. 1–21.

108 Mirza Abu Taleb Khan,
Travels in Asia, Africa and Europe during the years 1799 to 1803
, New Delhi, Sona Publications, 1972 (first published 1814), pp. 8–21.

109 Graham,
Journal of a Residence
, p. 173.

110 Mark Staniforth, 'Diet, Disease and Death at Sea 1837–39',
New Directions in Maritime History
, ICMH/AAMH Conference, Fremantle, 6–10 December 1993, typescript.

111 Emma Roberts,
The East-India Voyager: Or Ten Minutes Advice to the Outward Bound
, London, J. Madden & Co., 1845, pp. 3–11.

112 'Trench's Travels',
Indian Ocean Review
, I, 3, September 1988, p. 2.

113 Eliza Fay,
Original Letters from India
, Calcutta, 1817, pp. 104–9, 218–19, 231. The punctuation is hers.

114 Account of a voyage to Australia by Lancelot L. Earl, Australian National Maritime Museum, n.p., typescript.

115 Parks,
Wanderings of a Pilgrim
, II, pp. 478–9.

116 Lancelot L. Earl.

117 Parks,
Wanderings of a Pilgrim
, I, p. 11.

118 Account of a voyage to Australia by Richard James Whyte, Australian National Maritime Museum, n.p., typescript.

119 Twain,
Following the Equator
, pp. 615–17.

120 Burton,
A.E.I.
, pp. 404–5.

121 E.J. Harding,
Dominions Diary: The Letters of E.J. Harding 1913–1916
, ed. S. Constantine, Halifax, Ryburn Pubs, 1992, pp. 40–2, 50, 52, 54.

122 Helen Rutledge, ed.,
A Season in India: Letters of Ruby Madden. Experiences of an Australian Girl at the Great Coronation Durbar, Delhi, 1903
, Sydney, Fontana Books, 1982, pp. 22–34, 39.

123 Charles Allen, ed.,
Plain Tales from the Raj
, illustrated edition, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1985, pp. 32, 35.

124 Sulivan,
Dhow Chasing
, p. 99.

125 Leonard Woolf,
Growing: An Autobiography of the Years 1904–1911
, New York, Harcourt, Brace & World, 1962, pp. 11–21.

126 Lady Anna Brassey,
A Voyage in the Sunbeam: Our Home on the Ocean for Eleven Months
, London, Longmans, Green, 1878, pp. 467–8.

127 Ibid, pp. vii-viii.

128 Ibid., passim.

129 Account of a voyage to Australia by Wilfred Pearce, Australian National Maritime Museum, n.p., typescript.

130 Bryce Moore, Helen Garwood and Nancy Lutton,
The Voyage Out: 100 Years of Sea Travel to Australia
, Fremantle, Fremantle Arts Centre Press in association with The Library Board of Western Australia, 1991.

131 Accounts of voyages to Australia by James Murray and William Heeley, Australian National Maritime Museum, n.p., typescript.

132 Barry Pemberton,
Australian Coastal Shipping
, Melbourne, Melbourne University Press, 1979, p. 208.

133 Juanita Harrison,
My Great, Wide, Beautiful World
, 2nd ed., New York, G.K. Hall, 1996. The quotations are from, respectively, pp. 296, 96–8, 117, 160–1, 157–8, 159, 164.

134 A brief statement of the thesis is in
The Encyclopedia of Religion
, ed. Mircea Eliade, New York, Macmillan, 1987, 16 vols, XI, p. 328.

135 E.M. Forster,
Selected Letters
, vol. I, ed. Mary Lago and P.N. Furbank, London, Collins, 1983, pp. 138–40.

136 Twain,
Following the Equator
, pp. 615–17.

137 Parks,
Wanderings of a Pilgrim
, I, p. 3.

138 Woolf,
Growing
, pp. 11–21, 246–7.

139 Moore et al.,
Voyage Out
, p. 162.

140 Account of a voyage to Australia by Joseph Woodhouse, Australian National Maritime Museum, n.p., typescript.

141 Tompsitt,
A Diary of my Voyage
, pp. 15–16.

142 Account of a voyage to Australia by Dr Mackenzie, Australian National Maritime Museum, n.p. typescript.

143 Forster,
Selected Letters
, p. 140.

144 Moore et al.,
Voyage Out
, pp. 157–8, 160.

145 Burton,
A.E.I.
, p. 400.

146 Australian National Maritime Museum, accounts of voyages to Australia by William Lawrence and William Heeley, n.p., typescript.

147 Moore et al.,
Voyage Out
, p. 165.

148 Harding,
Dominions Diary
, p. 56.

149 Joseph Conrad,
Typhoon, and other Tales
, New York, New American Library, 1963, pp. 244–7 (the story of 'Youth').

150 Allen,
Plain Tales
, pp. 36–7.

151 'Trench's Travels',
Indian Ocean Review
, I, 2, June 1988, p. 11.

152 Burton,
A.E.I.
, pp. 296, 379–81.

153 Juanita Harrison,
My Great Wide, Beautiful World
, pp. 146–7.

154 Frances Eden,
Tigers
, pp. 50–1.

155 Burton,
A.E.I.
, pp. 75–83, 93–107.

156 Both quoted in Anne Bulley,
The Bombay Country Ships, 1790–1833
, London, Curzon, 2000, pp. 230–1, 47.

157 Alan Villiers,
Sons of Sinbad: An Account of Sailing with the Arabs in the Dhows, in the Red Sea, around the Coasts of Arabia, and to Zanzibar and Tanganyika; Pearling in the Persian Gulf; and the Life of the Shipmasters, the Mariners and Merchants of Kuwait
, New York, C.Scribner's Sons, 1940, p. 35.

158 Devleena Ghosh and Stephen Muecke, 'Indian Ocean Stories', in
UTS Review
, VI, 2, 'The Indian Ocean', 2000, pp. 34–5; Philippe Reignier, 'Saint Expédit', in ibid., pp. 70–7.

159 Stephen F. Dale,
Islamic Society on the South Asian Frontier: The Mappilas of Malabar, 1498–1922
, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1980, pp. 6–7, 116–18, 128, 134–5, 167.

160 Much of what follows comes from M.N. Pearson, 'Gateways to Africa: The Indian Ocean and the Red Sea', in Levtzion and Pouwels, eds,
History of Islam in Africa
, pp. 37–59, where more detail will be found.

161 Gill Shepherd, 'Trading Lineages in Historical Perspective', in J.C. Stone, ed.,
Africa and the Sea: Proceedings of a Colloquium at the University of Aberdeen, March, 1984
, Aberdeen, University of Aberdeen, 1985, p. 172.

162 Abdin Chande, 'Radicalism and Reform in East Africa', in Levtzion and Pouwels, eds,
History of Islam in Africa
, p. 355 and passim.

163 Michael Lambek, 'Choking on the Quran: And other Consuming Parables from the Western Indian Ocean Front', in Wendy James, ed.,
The Pursuit of Certainty: Religious and Cultural Formulations
, London, Routledge, 1995, p. 263.

164 Azyumardi Azra, 'A Hadhrami Religious Scholar in Indonesia: Sayyid Uthman', in Ulrike Freitag and W.G. Clarence-Smith,
Hadhrami Traders, Scholars and Statesmen in the Indian Ocean, 1750s-1960s
, Leiden, Brill, 1997, pp. 249–63.