The Indian Ocean (70 page)

26 Lakshmi Subramanian, 'Of Pirates and Potentates: Maritime Jurisdiction and the Construction of Piracy in the Indian Ocean', in Devleena Ghosh and Stephen Muecke, eds,
The UTS Review: Cultural Studies and New Writing
, VI, 2, November 2000, 'The Indian Ocean', p. 21.

27 David Mitchell,
Pirates
, London, Thames and Hudson, 1976, p. 101.

28 Barendse, 'Trade and State', p. 191, f.n. 71. See four recent studies on this topic: Roderich Ptak, 'Piracy along the Coasts of Southwest India and Ming China', in Artur Teodoro de Matos and Luís Filipe F. Reis Thomaz, eds,
As relações entre a India Portuguesa, a Asia do Sueste e o Extremo Oriente
(actas do VI Seminário Internacional de História Indo-Portuguesa), Macau, no publisher, 1993, pp. 255–73; in the same publication Luis Filipe F.R. Thomaz, 'Do Cabo Espichel a Macau: Vicissitudes do corso Português', pp. 537–68; Patricia Risso, 'Cross-Cultural Perceptions of Piracy: Maritime Violence in the Western Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf Region during the long Eighteenth Century',
Journal of World History
, XII, 2001, pp. 293–319, and J.L. Anderson, 'Pirates and World History: An Economic Perspective',
Journal of World History
, VI, 1995, 175–199.

29 Mitchell,
Pirates
, p. 89.

30 Sir Thomas Bowrey,
A Geographical Account of Countries Around the Bay of Bengal
, Cambridge, Hakluyt, 1905, p. 262.

31 Mitchell,
Pirates
, pp. 107–8.

32 For all this section on the spice trade see my 'Introduction', in
Spices in the Indian Ocean World
, 'An Expanding World, vol. 11' Aldershot, Variorum, 1996, pp. xv-xxxvii, and the sources there cited.

33 Vitorino Magalhães Godinho,
Mito e mercadoria, utopia e prática de navegar, séculos XIII-XVIII
, Lisbon, Difusão Editorial, 1990, p. 331.

34 Fernand Braudel,
The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II
, London, Collins, 1972, 2 vols, I, p. 549.

35 Generally for the Portuguese in East Africa see M.N. Pearson,
Port Cities and Intruders
, Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998, pp. 129–54.

36 Pius Malekandathil,
The Germans, the Portuguese and India
, Munster, LIT, 1999, p. 100.

37 A.J.R. Russell-Wood,
A World on the Move: The Portuguese in Africa, Asia, and America, 1415–1808
, St Martin's Press, New York, 1992, p. 64, and many other examples on pp. 63–122.

38 T. Bentley Duncan, 'Navigation between Portugal and Asia in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries', in Cyriac K. Pullapilly, et al., eds,
Asia and the West: Encounters and Exchanges from the Age of Explorations: Essays in Honor of Donald F. Lach
, Notre Dame, Ind., Cross Roads Books, 1986.

39 João dos Santos,
Ethiopia Oriental
, Lisbon, Escriptorio da Empreza, 1891, 2 vols, I, pp. i, 17.

40 Diogo do Couto,
Da Asia
, Lisboa, Na Regia officina typografica, 1777–88, IX, cap. 22.

41 See C.R. Boxer,
From Lisbon to Goa, 1500–1750: Studies in Portuguese Maritime Enterprise
, Aldershot, Variorum, 1984, especially 'The Principal Ports of Call in the "Carreira da India",' and 'Moçambique Island and the "Carreira da India"', for copious detail on the Portuguese in Mozambique, their forts and their illnesses.

42 Fernão Lopes de Castanheda,
História do descobrimento e conquista da India pelos Portugueses
, 3rd ed., Coímbra, Impr. da Universidade, 1924–33, 9 vols, VII, pp. 87–8.

43 Generally for 'corruption' see my
Coastal Western India
, pp. 18–25.

44 De Barros
Da Asia
, I, iv, 3.

45 Gaspar Correia,
Lendas da India
, Lisbon, Typ. da Academia real das Sciencias, 1858–64, 4 vols, I, p. 273.

46 Vitorino Magalhães Godinho,
Os descobrimentos e a economia mundial
, 2nd ed., Lisbon, Editorial Presença, 1981–83, 4 vols, I, pp. 192–4.

47 Correia,
Lendas da India
, I, pp. 537–44.

48 Sanjay Subrahmanyam, 'Notes on the Political Economy of Portuguese Asia, 1523–1526', in Teotonio R. de Souza, ed.,
Vasco da Gama and India, International Conference
, Lisbon, Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 1999, 3 vols, II, pp. 47–65.

49 The activities of the northern European trading companies have been splendidly covered in two books, the first a classic, the second the best modern survey: Holden Furber,
Rival Empires of Trade in the Orient, 1600–1800
, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1976; Om Prakash,
European Commercial Enterprise in Pre-Colonial India
, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998. Details on all the matters sketched here will be found in these books.

50 Quoted in Devleena Ghosh and Stephen Muecke, 'Indian Ocean Stories',
UTS Review
, 'The Indian Ocean', ed. Ghosh and Muecke, VI, 2, November 2000, p. 28.

51 Samuel Pepys' Diary, quoted in Gillian Tindall,
City of Gold: The Biography of Bombay
, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1992, p. v.

52 Denys Lombard, 'Questions on the Contact between European Companies and Asian Societies', in L. Blussé and F. Gaastra, eds,
Companies and Trade
, Leiden, Leiden University Press, 1981, p. 187.

53 Again, data on the spice trade is mostly from my 'Introduction' to
Spices in the Indian Ocean World.

54 Excellent data in Anthony Reid, 'An "Age of Commerce" in SE Asian History',
Modern Asian Studies
, 24, 1990, pp. 1–30, especially p. 11.

55 Willard A. Hanna,
Indonesian Banda: Colonialism and its Aftermath in the Nutmeg Islands
, Philadelphia, Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1978, p. 63, and generally for the Dutch in the Bandas.

56 Kristof Glamman,
Dutch–Asiatic Trade, 1620–1740
, Copenhagen, Danish Scientific Press, 1958, p. 109.

57 Mark Vink, 'The Dutch East India Company and the Pepper Trade between Kerala and Tamilnad, 1663–1795: A Geo-Historical Analysis', in K.S. Mathew, ed.,
Mariners, Merchants and Oceans: Studies in Maritime History
, New Delhi, Manohar, 1995, pp. 274–6.

58 Els M. Jacobs,
In Pursuit of Pepper and Tea: The Story of the Dutch East India Company
, Amsterdam, Netherlands Maritime Museum, 1991, p. 77.

59 J. Kathirithamby-Wells, 'Introduction', in J. Kathirithamby-Wells and John Villiers, eds,
The Southeast Asian Port and Polity
, Singapore, Singapore University Press, 1990.

60 Om Prakash,
European Commercial Enterprise.

61 Quoted in Niels Steensgaard,
The Asian Trade Revolution of the Seventeenth Century: The East
India Companies and the Decline of the Caravan Trade,
Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1974, p. 407.

62 R. Raben, 'European Periphery at the Heart of the Ocean: The Maldives, 17th–18th Centuries', in J. Everaert and J. Parmentier, eds,
International Conference on Shipping, Factories and Colonization (Brussels, 24–26 November 1994)
, Brussels, Koninklijke Academie van Belgie, 1996.

63 Furber,
Rival Empires
, p. 231.

64 Prakash's numerous articles on this and related topics have been conveniently collected in
Precious Metals and Commerce: The Dutch East India Company in the Indian Ocean Trade
, Aldershot, Variorum, 1994.

65 S. Arasaratnam, 'Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century', in K.S. Mathew, ed.,
Mariners, Merchants and Oceans
, pp. 195–208.

66 Rajat Datta, 'Markets, Bullion and Bengal's Commercial Economy: An Eighteenth Century Perspective', in Prakash and Lombard, eds,
Commerce and Culture in the Bay of Bengal
, p. 331.

67 Niels Steensgaard, 'The Indian Ocean Network and the Emerging World-Economy, c. 1500–1750', in Satish Chandra, ed.,
The Indian Ocean: Explorations in History, Commerce and Politics
, New Delhi, Sage, 1987, pp. 125–50.

68 Ashin Das Gupta, 'India and the Indian Ocean in the Eighteenth Century', in Ashin Das Gupta and M.N. Pearson, eds,
India and the Indian Ocean, 1500–1800
, Calcutta, 1987, New Delhi, 1999, pp. 131–61, especially p. 134.

69 For this data on the Portuguese in East Africa see my
Port Cities and Intruders
, pp. 129–54, and the sources there cited.

70 See again
Port Cities and Intruders
, pp. 129–54, and my 'The Search for the Similar: Early Contacts between Portuguese and Indians', in Jens Christian V. Johansen, Erling Ladewig Petersen and Henrik Stevnsborg, eds,
Clashes of Cultures: Essays in Honour of Niels Steensgaard
, Odense, Odense University Press, 1992, pp. 144–59.

71 See my 'First Contacts between Indian and European Medical Systems: Goa in the Sixteenth Century', in David Arnold ed.,
Warm Climates and Western Medicine: The Emergence of Tropical Medicine, 1500–1900
, Amsterdam, Editions Rodopi (The Wellcome Institute Series in the History of Medicine), 1996, pp. 20–41, and my 'Hindu Medical Practice in Sixteenth-Century Western India: Evidence from the Portuguese Records',
Portuguese Studies
, XVII, 2001, pp. 100–13 for this section, and the quotations in it.

72 Georg Schurhammer,
Francis Xavier: His Life, His Times
,
India
, Rome, Jesuit Historical Institute, 1977, vol. II, p. 96.

73 Mrs Jemima Kindersley,
Letters from the Island of Teneriffe, Brazil, The Cape of Good Hope, and the East Indies
, London, J. Nourse, 1777, pp. 66–7, 169.

74 Leonard Blussé,
Strange company: Chinese settlers, Mestizo Women, and the Dutch in VOC Batavia
, Dordrecht and Riverton, Foris Publications, 1986.

75 G.V. Scammell, 'European Exiles, Renegades and Outlaws and the Maritime Economy of Asia, c. 1500–1750', in K.S. Mathew, ed.,
Mariners, Merchants and Oceans
, p. 123.

76 John O'Kane, trans. and ed.,
The Ship of Sulaiman
, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972, pp. 37–40.

6
The early modern Indian Ocean world

1 Quoted in R.J. Barendse,
The Arabian Seas, 1640–1700
, Leiden, Research School, CNWS, Leiden University, 1998, p. 157.

2 Quoted in Gillian Tindall,
City of Gold: The Biography of Bombay
, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1992, p. 102.

3 John Correia-Afonso, ed.,
Intrepid Itinerant: Manuel Godinho and his Journey from India to
Portugal in 1663
, Bombay, Oxford University Press, 1990, pp. 47–9.

4 Sir James Lancaster,
The Voyage of Sir James Lancaster to Brazil and the East Indies, 1591–1603
, ed. W. Foster, London, Hakluyt, 1940, pp. 3, 6.

5 John O'Kane, trans. and ed.,
The Ship of Sulaiman
, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972, pp. 181, 171.

6 Luis Filipe F.R. Thomaz, 'Malaka et ses communautés marchandes au tournant du 16
e
siècle', in Denys Lombard and Jean Aubin, eds,
Marchands et hommes d'affairs asiatiques dans l'Océan Indien et la Mer de Chine 13e-20e siècles
, Paris, Editions de l'Ecole des hautes études en sciences sociales, 1988, p. 42.

7 Quoted in M.N. Pearson,
Pious Passengers: The Hajj in Earlier Times
, New Delhi, Sterling, 1994, p. 71.

8 Indrani Ray,
The French East India Company and the Trade of the Indian Ocean: A Collection of Essays
, ed. Lakshmi Subramanian, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1999, pp. 177–200.

9 R.J. Barendse, 'Trade and State in the Arabian Seas: A Survey from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century',
Journal of World History
, XI, 2000, pp. 206–7.

10 O'Kane, trans. and ed.,
Sulaiman
, p. 168. See also Correia-Afonso, ed.,
Godinho
, pp. 117–19 for a detailed description by one who had been to both Mannar and Bahrain.

11 Sir Thomas Bowrey,
A Geographical Account of Countries Around the Bay of Bengal
, Cambridge, Hakluyt, 1905, pp. 73–6.

12 Jerónimo Lobo,
The Itinerary of Jerónimo Lobo
, trans. Donald M. Lockhart, London, Hakluyt, 1984, pp. 89–90.

13 Ashin Das Gupta, 'Gujarati Merchants and the Red Sea Trade, 1700–1725', reprinted in Uma Das Gupta, ed.,
The World of the Indian Ocean Merchant, 1500–1800: Collected Essays of Ashin Das Gupta
, New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 2001, pp. 369–70.