The Origins of the British: The New Prehistory of Britain (71 page)

24
. 13.0% (271/2,082).

25
. Haplotype 151, in this dataset.

26
. Local: R1b-7.

27
. Age of R1b-4: 7,000 years (
n
= 9, SD ±3,140); R1b-14b, 8,400 years (
n
= 40, SD ±4,060); R1b-14c, 6,500 years (
n
= 53, SD ±4,600). R1b-15a: 11,500 years (
n
= 10, SD ±6,010). 112/2,082 = 5.4% of Mesolithic lines surviving until today.

28
. I1b2: 8,600 years (
n
= 6 unique descendants; SD ±4,270) dated in British expansion; total I1b2 in British, including types shared with Iberia =12 in this study. Dates of I1b2 in south-west Europe and Sardinia according to Rootsi et al. (2004). Time since sub-clade divergence 9,300 (±7,600) years, age of STR variation 8,000 (±4,000) years, time since population divergence 7,900 (±3,600) years.

29
. R1b-6 derived from Rox, but re-expanding just after the YD: age 11,250 years (rooted on Ht. 140,
n
= 24, SD ±4,182).

30
. British I1c-3 age 11,600 years (
n
= 25, SD ±5,470), total
n
in cluster = 26; other Mesolithic I lines: I* in British Isles (
n
= 11), found mainly in Ireland and the Isle of Man, not possible to date in British Isles, but dated at 23,000 (±7,700) years in Europe (Rootsi et al. 2004); British I1b* age: 12,800 years (
n
= 5, SD ±6,780) total
n
= 11. I1b* in the Balkans: age of sub-clade divergence 10,700 years (±4,800, Rootsi et al. 2004).

31
. YD dates (calendar-corrected) as per figure 1 in Gamble et al. (2004).

32
. Jonathan Adams, ‘Europe during the last 150,000 years’,
http://www.esd.ornl.gov/projects/qen/nercEUROPE.html
>, with carbon-14 dates corrected.

33
. Oppenheimer (1998), pp. 30–8.

34
. J.M. Adams and H. Faure, ‘Preliminary land ecosystem maps of the world since the Last Glacial Maximum’,
http://www.esd.ornl.gov/projects/qen/eur8ky.gif
> and
http://www.esd.ornl.gov/projects/qen/eur8k.gif
> – for key to vegetation see
http://www.esd.ornl.gov/projects/qen/NEW_MAPS/europe5.gif
> and also
Figure 4.2
in this book.

35
. Kozlowski and Bandi (1984), Nygaard (1989), Sumkin (1990).

36
. 8,630 ± 85 years ago: Olofsson (2003).

37
. Sumkin (1990).

38
. Sumkin (1990), but see also Olofsson (2003), who gives dates but also says that the widespread lithic traditions linking northern Germany and Denmark with Norway and Sweden may have been more acculturation than migrational.

39
. Although to a much lesser extent for Y-chromosomes. Franco-Spanish mitochondrial haplogroup representatives include V and H, while the Y-chromosome is represented by R1b.

40
. i.e. higher than in the dataset used for the present study.

41
. Haetta (1996).

42
. Pereira et al. (2005): ‘The distribution of H1, the largest sub-clade, displays two peaks, one in Iberia and another in Scandinavia (Fig. 2B). However, the Norwegian sample size is low (
n
= 18) and haplogroup H is overrepresented (~70%, while larger data sets for Norway point to a frequency of ~50%: Richards et al. 2000). When we removed the Norwegian sample, the Scandinavian peak disappeared, and the picture showed only the decreasing frequency of sub-haplogroup H1 from the south-west to the north and east … H1 has an age of ~14,000 years (SE 4000) using coding region data and ~16,000 years (SE 3500) using HVS-I.’

43
. Pereira et al. (2005): H3: c.9,000 years old (SE ±3,000) based on the coding-region data and ~11,000 years old (SE ±3,000) using HVS-I.

44
. Although the wide confidence intervals (the SEs given in the previous note) prevent confirmation of this.

45
. 16,300 (± 4,800) years: Torroni et al. (2001).

46
. Tambets et al. (2004).

47
. Tambets et al. (2004).

48
. 8,500 (±2,300) years: Torroni et al. (2001).

49
. Pitkänen (1994).

50
. Sather (1995).

51
. Tambets et al. (2004), Achilli et al. (2005). The Saami are characterized by a unique further mutation at nucleotide 16144, creating subgroup U5b1b1, which is found at very low rates elsewhere in north-east Europe and the Volga– Ural region, but particularly among Finns (6.7%) and Karelians (6%), thus indicating the likely immediate source of this founding effect. The ratio of U5b1b1:Vera varies from 2:1 in Norwegian Saami to 1:3 in Swedish Saami, and roughly equal proportions in Finnish Saami groups.

52
. Achilli et al. (2005): ‘Intriguingly, the Saami of Scandinavia and the Berbers of North Africa were found to share an extremely young branch [U5b1b], aged merely ~9,000 years [8,600 ± 2,400 years]. This unexpected finding not only confirms that the Franco-Cantabrian refuge area of south-western Europe was the source of late-glacial expansions of hunter-gatherers that repopulated northern Europe after the Last Glacial Maximum but also reveals a direct maternal link between those European hunter-gatherer populations and the Berbers.’

53
. While the great majority of modern Saami maternal lines ultimately derive from the Franco-Spanish refuge, a few derive from the Asian super-group M (Tambets et al. 2004). The proportion of these eastern M lines varies from less than 3% in Norwegian and Swedish Saami to 16% in Finnish Saami. This observation suggests a later gene flow into the ancestral Saami colonies, originating ultimately from the Volga–Ural region in neighbouring Siberia to the east. For M (or ‘Manju’) see Oppenheimer (2003), pp. 83–4.

54
. Tambets et al. (2004).

55
. Rootsi (2004) argues for R1a1 as effectively a ‘Slavic marker’. For suggestion of post-glacial expansion, see Semino et al. (2000).

56
. 7,000 years ago: see Rosser et al. (2000) and discussion in Tambets et al. (2004).

57
. R1a1-2b in Norway is rooted on Ht. 87 (this study) and dates to 5,700 years (
n
= 29, SD ±2,160). As we shall see, there is evidence that this Neolithic Norwegian cluster expanded to Shetland, where a genetic founding event dates to the same period of the Mesolithic–Neolithic transition. See Melton and Nicholson (2004).

58
. My view here is a variation on Tambets et al. (2004), who draw their R1a1 migration line parallel with N3 directly through Finland. Rates for R1a1 and N3 in this and the next paragraph are mainly from table 3 in Tambets et al. (2004).

59
. Tambets et al. (2004) are sceptical of any significant Siberian contribution to the N3 in Saami that entered along with the recent introduction of Uralic languages. Rather, they take the view that this lineage could equally have arrived earlier, from Eastern Europe. See also Semino et al. (2000), Wells et al. (2001), Zerjal et al. (1997) and Underhill et al. (2001).

60
. After the Mesolithic era or, at least at the Mesolithic–Neolithic transition.

61
. Percentages from present study.

62
. Age of R1a1-2b in Norway: 5,700 years (rooted on Ht. 87,
n
= 37, SD ±2,160).

63
. Olofsson (2003).

64
. The preponderance of East European male lines, such as R1a1, over Basque refuge R1b types is greater than for female lines, where the balance (between both male and female and east and west) is more even.

65
. British proportions of I subgroups: I1a constitutes 11.1% (233/2,082); I1b, 1% (23/2,082); and I*/I1*, 0.5% (11/2,082) of lines in the British Isles today. My dating of haplogroup I, including the entire European, Turkish and Syrian datasets, gives 54,000 years (rooted on Ht. 311,
n
= 627, SD ±16,240). Age of I*/I1*: 32,500 years (rooted on Ht. 296,
n
= 19, SD ±9,180). See also dates in the same range as the above ages of I* from the present study, given in table 3 of Rootsi et al. (2004) (their population includes Turks): I* age of STR variation: 24,000 (±7,100) years; see also Semino et al. (2000) (Eu7 and Eu8 inferred estimate c.22,000 years); and Inos (I) (33,000 years by analogy with HV) in Oppenheimer (2003), pp. 146, 151.

66
. Present study: I1a age 14,940 years (
n
= 458, SD ±6,428); I1c, 20,830 years (
n
= 51, SD ±4,548). See also comparable dates in Rootsi et al. (2004), table 3: times since sub-clade divergence for I1a, 15,900 (±5,200) years; for I1c, 14,600 (±3,800) years, respectively.

67
. For rates of ‘I’ branches, see Rootsi et al. (2004).

68
. Rootsi et al. (2004), tables 1 and 2, figures 1 and 2.

69
. i.e. apart from south-west France and the Basque Country: Rootsi et al. (2004).

70
. Rootsi et al. (2004).

71
. The four main subgroups after the LGM were I1a, I1b, I1c and I* (Rootsi et al. 2004). Note, however, that the Rootsi group argues that ‘the I1a data in Scandinavia are consistent with a post-LGM recolonization of northwestern Europe from Franco-Cantabria’. Their opinion is based on diversity which is
related to a later period than the separation of branches. In this book I take a different view, namely that all the post-glacial expansions of all the I subgroups arose from the Balkans (a view partly shared by Passarino et al. 2002). This variation in opinion does not really affect issues concerned with the dates, direction and effect of I1a and I1c on eastern Britain (discussed here and in
Part 3
), although it is critical to interpreting the post-glacial period and spread of the Balkans Neolithic.