The Origins of the British: The New Prehistory of Britain (75 page)

151
. Raftery (1994).

152
. Ó’Donnabháin (2000).

1
. For example, a single point mutation recently discovered in Europeans which is responsible for a large part of their skin bleaching (Lamason et al. 2005).

2
. Adams and Otte (1999).

3
. Martin Richards and his colleagues paid me a compliment by incorporating this perspective, with acknowledgement, in their milestone paper on European genetic Founder Analysis (Richards et al. 2000).

4
. Diamond and Bellwood (2003), esp. p. 598. See also my critique (Oppenheimer 2004) and their response (Bellwood and Diamond 2005).

5
. Gimbutas (1970), but see the discussions in Renfrew (1989), Oppenheimer (2004) and Richards (2003).

6
. Renfrew (1989).

7
. Cavalli-Sforza et al. (1994), pp. 292–3, figures 5.11.1 and 5.11.3. See also Cavalli-Sforza et al. (1993).

8
. Renfrew (1989).

9
. See e.g. Gamkrelidze and Ivanov (1995) and Rexova et al. (2003).

10
. For example, resulting from different rates of language evolution, ascertainment bias and undetected lexical borrowing – see p. 257.

11
. Dyen et al. (1992).

12
. Gray and Atkinson (2003).

13
. Atkinson et al. (2005).

14
. Semino et al. (2000), Rootsi et al. (2004). Interestingly, the only European populations with I rates as low as the Greeks are in south-west Europe and on the Atlantic fringe, speaking insular-celtic languages.

15
. As defined in Rootsi et al. (2004).

16
. Cowgill (1970).

17
. The potential fallacy in interpreting Cavalli-Sforza’s First Principal Component (the south-east to north-west vector) as necessarily reflecting just a Near Eastern Neolithic expansion was pointed out not by a geneticist but by archaeologist Marek Zvelebil, who first suggested the analogy with a ‘palimpsest’. The literature, both archaeological and genetic, is well reviewed by Richards (2003).

18
. Adams and Otte (1999).

19
. See the review article by Pringle (1998).

20
. Balter (1998).

21
. McMahon and McMahon (2003).

22
. Forster and Toth (2003).

23
. 10,100 (±1,900) years ago (Forster and Toth 2003).

24
. McMahon and McMahon (2006).

1
. Gildas, De excidio Britanniae 22–23.

1
. Strabo, Geography 4.5.2.

2
. Tacitus,
Agricola
11.

3
. Harding et al. (2000), Rees (2000).

4
. Julius Caesar,
Gallic Wars
, 5.12.

5
. Julius Caesar,
Gallic Wars
, 5.14.

6
. Sims-Williams (2006), esp. maps 11.1 and 11.2; Parsons and Sims-Williams (2000), pp. 169–78; Evans (1967); Rivet and Smith (1979).

7
. Evans (1967), p. 16, quoting Caesar from
Gallic Wars
, 1.1–2.

8
. Evans (1967), p. 16.

9
. Julius Caesar,
Gallic Wars
, 1.1.

10
. Julius Caesar,
Gallic Wars
, 2.3.

11
. Julius Caesar,
Gallic Wars
, 2.4.

12
. Julius Caesar,
Gallic Wars
, 2.4.

13
. Treharne and Fullard (1976), p. 15.

14
. Tacitus,
Germania
28.

15
. Julius Caesar,
Gallic Wars
, 2.29.

16
. Sims-Williams (1998b), note 71 on p. 19.

17
. Tacitus,
Germania
28; see also Tacitus on Cimbri in
Germania
37.

18
. Evans (1967).

19
. Sims-Williams (2002), p. 7.

20
. Sims-Williams (1998), p. 19.

21
. Kuhn (1962), pp. 105–8 and maps 9–16.

22
. Kuhn (1962). As a cross-check there is a degree of congruity between Kuhn’s micro-analysis of Belgic place-names and Patrick Sims-Williams’ recent massive survey of Celtic place-names in Europe (Sims-Williams 2006). See
Figure 2.1b
in this book.

23
. Kuhn (1962), map 13.

24
. Jackson (1953), Evans (1967), Rivet and Smith (1979), Sims-Williams (2006).

25
. Bragg (2003), p. 5.

26
. Parsons and Sims-Williams (2000). While there is the advantage that numbers of different language derivations are compared using the same ancient geographer, unfortunately their ultimate aim of a standardized, quantitative, region-by-region comparison is not fulfilled quite yet.

27
. Parsons (2000), p. 174.

28
. Parsons (2000), p. 174.

29
. Parsons (2000), p. 174.

30
. Scheers (1972).

31
. Cunliffe (1981b), Kent (1981); see also figures 39–44 in Cunliffe (1981a).

32
. Sims-Williams (2002), pp. 14–15.

33
. Sims-Williams (2002), pp.10–11.

34
. Sims-Williams (2002), p. 14.

35
. Celtic inscribed stones also continued to be set up in Brittany, Orkney and Ireland for that matter; see
Figure 7.4
in this book.

36
. Sims-Williams (2002), pp. 15–19.

37
. For up-to-date reviews see Sims-Williams (2003, 2006).

38
. CISP,
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/cisp/database
>.

39
. Bragg (2003), p. 5.

40
. Vennemann (2003).

1
. Tacitus, Germania 2. The linguist Peter Schrijver (1999) argues that the Ingvaeonic vowel changes might have resulted from contact with Celtic.

2
. See e.g. Nielsen (1981). See also Kortlandt (1999), who suggests that the split between Old English and Old Frisian on the one hand and Saxon on the other effectively occurred before the Anglian invasion, indicating that a Saxon invasion preceded the Anglian one. This is an interesting view, since one might imagine that the time difference between the Saxon and Anglian invasions of England would have to have been sufficiently large to produce such an effect. A large gap is just what I argue later, though on other grounds.

3
. Forster et al. (2006). For an alternative theory of pre-invasion splits and chronological separation of English dialects, see Kortlandt (1999). For
Heliand
, an early ninth-century (
AD
825) epic Christian poem written in Old Low German, see Genzmer (1982).

4
. Walter (1911). Such unique derived forms are known as lexical synapomorphies. See also Forster et al. (2006).

5
. Dyen et al. (1992).

6
. Gray and Atkinson (2003).

7
. McMahon and McMahon (2003). The citation in the quote is to Embleton (1986), pp. 100–1. A Swadesh list is a list of basic vocabulary terms in two or more related languages used to identify the proportion of shared cognates.

8
. Except possibly the Jutes, but this is not apparent in Old Kentish.

9
. Genzmer (1982).

10
. Gildas,
De excidio Britanniae
23.3. See also Sims-Williams (1983), p. 22.

11
.
OED
, 2nd edn, 1989. See also Forster et al. (2006).

12
. Although in fact Middle Dutch had a cognate,
kiel
, meaning ‘ship’, which subsequently lost that meaning, taking on the common meaning of ‘keel’ instead.

13
. Cronan (2004).

14
. Forster et al. (2006).

15
. Forster et al. (2006).

16
. Forster et al. (2006).

17
.
OED
, 2nd edn, 1989.

18
. Adamnan,
Life of St Columba
1.27, 2.33.

1
. See discussion in Pryor (2004), e.g. p. 131.

2
. Bede,
Ecclesiastical History
1.6.

3
. Pryor (2004), pp. 135–43.

4
. Pryor (2004), p. 135.

5
. Pryor (2004), p. 139.

6
. Pryor (2004), p.141.

7
. Pryor (2004), p. 141.

8
. Pryor (2004), p. 142.

9
. Pryor (2004), p. 143.

10
. Pryor (2004), p. 135.

11
. It should be noted that this whole unresolved issue concerning the
Notitia dignitatum
, the ‘forts’ and the meaning of ‘Saxon’ in that context is not new, and discussion goes back to the 1930s. I use Pryor’s book in the discussion because it is topical and many will have read it or seen the documentary.

12
. See discussion/review in Rivet and Smith (1979), pp. 297–300.

13
. Parsons (2000), p. 175.

14
. See the discussion in Rivet and Ellis (1979), p. 281.

15
. Bede,
Ecclesiastical History
5.24.

16
.
Epistola Cuthberti de obitu Bedae
in Opland (1980), pp. 140–1.

17
. See the discussion in Sims-Williams (1983).

18
. For example in
The Life of Gildas
by Caradoc of Llancarfan, c.1130–50.

19
. Gildas,
De excidio Britanniae
23.

20
. Page (1999), p. 213.

21
. Page (1999), pp. 16–17.

22
. Vennemann (2006).

23
. Page (1999), p. 23.

24
. Bede,
Ecclesiastical History
4.13.

25
. Sims-Williams (1990), figure 2.

26
. Page (1999), p. 18.

27
. Page (1999), p. 19.

28
. Page (1999), pp. 228–9.

29
. To my reading, Procopius is ambiguous about who he means here – presumably the Franks on the Continent rather than the Frisians.