The Power of Mindful Learning (21 page)

8. Vyse, S. A., and Rapport, M. D. "The Effects of Methylphenidate on Learning in Children with ADHD: The Stimulus Equivalence Paradigm,",Journal of Consultation and Clinical
Psychology 57, no. 3 (June 1989): 425-35.

9. Landau, S., Lorch, E. P., and Milich, R., "Visual Attention
to and Comprehension of Television in Attention-Deficit
Hyperactivity Disordered and Normal Boys," Child Development 63 no. 4 (Aug. 1992): 928-37.

10. Ford, M., Poe, V., and Cox, J. "Attending Behaviors of
ADHD Children in Math and Reading Using Various Types of Software," Journal of Computing in Childhood Education 4,
no.2 (1993): 183-96.

11. Cripe, F. F., "Rock Music as Therapy for Children with
Attention Deficit Disorder: An Exploratory Study,"Journal of
Music Therapy 23, no. 1 (Spring 1986): 30-37.

12. Zentall, S. S., "The Attraction of Color for Active Attention-Problem Children." Exceptional Children 54, no. 4 (Jan.
1988): 357-62.

13. Carson, S., Shih, M., and Langer, E. "Sit Still and Pay
Attention?" (manuscript, Harvard University, 1996).

3 THE MYTH OF DELAYED GRATIFICATION

1. Lerner, M., Miller, D., and Holmes, J. "Deserving versus
Justice: A Contemporary Dilemma," in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, ed. L. Berkowitz, vol. 9 (New York: Academic Press, 1976).

2. Deci, E., "Effects of Externally Mediated Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
18 (1971): 105-15; Kruglanski, A., Freedman, I., and Zeevi, G.,
"The Effect of Extrinsic Incentive on Some Qualitative Aspects
of Task Performance,"Journal of Personality 39 (1971): 606-17;
Lepper, M., Greene, D., and Nisbett, R., "Undermining Children's Intrinsic Interest with Extrinsic Reward: A Test of the
Overjustification Hypothesis," Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology 28 (1973): 129-38; Pittman,T., and Heller, J., "Social
Motivation,"Annual Review of Psychology 38 (1987): 461-89.

3. Steele, C. M., and Aronson, J. "Stereotype Threat and the
Intellectual Test Performance of African Americans," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69, no. 5 (Nov. 1995): 797811.

4. Snow, S., and Langer, E., unpublished data. Harvard University.

5. LeVine, R. Personal communication.

6. Langer, E., and Pietrasz, L., "From Reference to Preference"
(manuscript, Harvard University, 1995).

7. Marcus, A., and Langer, E., "Mindfulness as a Means of
Reducing Conformity" (manuscript, Harvard University, 1990).

8. Zajonc, R., "Attributional Effects of Mere Exposure,"Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology 9, suppl. no. 2, part 2 (1968).

9. Bornstein, R. F., "Exposure and Affect: An Overview and
Meta-Analysis of Research, 1968-1987," Psychological Bulletin
106, no. 2 (1989): 265-89.

10. Saegart, S. C., and Jellison, J. M., "Effects of Initial Level
of Response Competition and Frequency of Exposure on Liking and Exploratory Behavior,"Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology 16 (1970): 553-58.

11. Langer, E., Bashner, R., and Chanowitz, B., "Decreasing
Prejudice by Increasing Discrimination," Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology 49 (1985): 113-20.

4 1066 WHAT? OR THE HAZARDS
OF ROTE MEMORY

1. Noice, H., "The Role of Explanations and Plan Recognition
in the Learning of Theatrical Scripts," Cognitive Science 15
(1991): 425-60; Anderson, J., and Reder, L., "An Elaborate Pro cessing of Depth of Processing," in Levels of Processing in Human
Memory, ed. L. Cerrick and F. Craik (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum,
1979), 385-403; Hilgard, E., and Marquis, D. G., Conditioning
and Learning (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1961).

2. Maclver, D. J., and Epstein, J. L., "Impact of AlgebraFocused Course Content and Active Learning/Teaching for
Understanding Instructional Approaches on Eighth-Graders'
Achievement" (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Center for Social Organization of Schools. Disadv. Stud., 1994).

3. Becker, H. J., "Mathematics With Meaning" (Baltimore,
MD: Johns Hopkins University Center for Social Organization
of Schools. 1993).

4. Rutherford, F. J., and Ahlgren, A., Science forAllAmericans
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).

5. Bereiter C., and Scardamalia, M. (1987), "An Attainable
Version of High Literacy: Approaches to Teaching HigherOrder Thinking Skills in Reading and Writing," Curriculum
Inquirer 17(1987): 9-30.

6. Epstein, J. L., and Salinas, K. C., Promising Programs in the
Middle Grades (Reston, VA: National Association of Secondary
School Principals, 1992).

7. Raudenbush, S. W., Rowan, B., and Cheong, Y. F., "Higher
Order Instructional Goals in Secondary Schools: Class,
Teacher, and School Influences,"American Educational Research
journal 20, no. 3 (1993): 523-53.

8. Markus, H., "Self-Schemata and Processing Information
about the Self," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 35
(1977): 63-78; Rogers, T., Kuiper, N., and Kirker, W., "Self Reference and the Encoding of Personal Information,",journal
of Personality and Social Psychology 35 (1977): 677-88.

9. Markus, H., Crane, M., Bernstein, S., and Siladi, N., "SelfSchemas and Gender,"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 42 (1982): 3 8-50.

10. Bellezza, F. S., "The Self as a Mnemonic Device: The Role
of Internal Cues.",journal of Personality and Social Psychology 3
(1984):47.

11. Noice, H., "The Role of Explanation and Plan Recognition in the Learning of Theatrical Scripts," Cognitive Science 15
(1991): 425-460.

12. Lieberman, M., and Langer, E. 1995 "Mindfulness and the
Process of Learning," in Learning and Context, ed. P. Antonacci
(Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, 1995).

13. Ibid.

14. Mueller, C., and Langer, E., "Encoding Variability and
Mindfulness" (manuscript, Harvard University, 1995).

15. Eck, J., "Medical Misdiagnosis with the Elderly" (ALM
thesis, Harvard University Extension School, 1994).

5 A NEW LOOK AT FORGETTING

1. Dror, I, and Langer, E. "The Danger of Knowing Too
Much: Cognitive Plasticity and Knowledge," in Creativity and
Cognition (in preparation).

2. Maier, N. R. F., "Reasoning in Humans II: The Solution of
a Problem and its Appearance in Consciousness," Journal of Comparative Psychology 12 (1931): 181-194; Duncker, K., "Part
Three: Fixedness of Thought Material," Psychological Monographs 58 (1945): 85-111; Langer, E., and Weinman, C.
"When Thinking Disrupts Intellectual Performance: Mindlessness on an Overlearned Task," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 7 (1981): 240-43 (1981); Condoor, S. S., Brock, H.
R., and Burger, C. D., "Innovation Through Early Recognition
of Critical Design Parameters," Paper presented at the meeting
of the ASEE, Urbana, Illinois, June 1993; Hecht, H., and Profitt, D. R., "The Price of Expertise: Effects of Experience on the
Water-Level Task,",journal of Psychological Science 6 (2) (1995):
90-95.

3. Moore, B., Sherrod, D., Liu, T., Underwood, B., "The Dispositional Shift in Attribution over Time,"Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 15 no. 6 (1979): 553-69.

4. Estes, W. K. "Is Human Memory Obsolete?"American Scientist 68 (1980): 62-69.

Pratkanis, A. R., Greenwald, A. G., Leippe, M. R., and Baumgardner, M. H. "In Search of Reliable Persuasion Effects: III.
The Sleeper Effect Is Dead: Long Live the Sleeper Effect."
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54 (1988): 203-18.

Schacter, D. L., Harbluk, J. L., and McLachlan, D. R.
"Retrieved Without Recollection: An Experimental Analysis of
Source Amnesia,"Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 23 (1984): 593-611.

5. Cutler, S., and Grams, A., "Correlates of Self-Reported
Everyday Memory Problems," Journal of Gerontology: Social
Sciences 43 (1988): 582-90; Palmore, E., Facts on Aging Quiz:
A Handbook of Uses and Results (New York: Springer, 1988); Ryan, E., "Beliefs about Memory across the Life Span,",journal
of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences 47 (1992): 41-47.

6. Baddeley, A. Working Memory (Oxford, England: Clarendon, 1986); Johansson, B., Zarit, S., and Berg, S., "Changes
in Cognitive Functioning of the Oldest Old," Journal of
Gerontology: Psychological Sciences 47 (1992): 75-80; Light,
L., and Burke, D., "Patterns of Language and Memory in
Old Age," in Language, Memory andAging, ed. L. Light and
D. Burke (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988),
244-71.

7. Holland, C., and Rabbit, P., "Effects of Age-Related Reductions in Processing Resources on Text Recall," Journal of
Gerontology: Psychological Sciences 47 (1992): 129-37; Langer,
E., Rodin, J., Beck, P., Weinman, C., and Spitzer, L., "Environmental Determinants of Memory Improvement in Late Adulthood," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37 (1979):
2003-13; Rissenberg, M., and Glanzer, M., "Picture Superiority in Free Recall: The Effects of Normal Aging and Primary
Degenerative Dementia," Journal of Gerontology: Psychological
Sciences 41 (1986): 64-71.

8. Kite, M., and Johnson, B., "Attitudes toward Older and
Younger Adults: A Meta-analysis," Psychology and Aging 3
(1988): 233-44.

9. Perdue, C., and Gurtman, M., "Evidence for the Automaticity of Ageism," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
26 (1990):199-216.

10. Langer, E., Mindfulness (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley,
1989).

11. Ibid.

12. Levy, B., and Langer, E., "Memory Advantage for Deaf
and Chinese Elders: Aging Free from Negative Premature
Cognitive Commitments,",journal of Personality and Social Psychology 66, no. 6 (Jan. 1994): 989-97.

13. Becker, H. J., Growing Old in Silence (Berkeley: University
of California Press, 1980); Davis, D. Long Lives: Chinese Elderly
and the Communist Revolution (Cambridge: Harvard University
Press, 1983); Ikels, C., "Aging and Disability in China: Cultural Issues in Measurement and Interpretation," Social Science
and Medicine 32 (1991): 649-65; Padden, C., and Humphries,
T., Deaf in America: Voices from a Culture (Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 1988).

14. Higgins, P., Outsiders in a Hearing World:: A Sociology of
Deafness (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1980); Padden and
Humphries, Deaf in America.

15. Becker, H.J., Growing Old in Silence.

16. Hall, S., "Train-Gone-Sorry: The Etiquette of Social Conversations in American Sign Language," in American Deaf Culture: An Anthology, ed. S. Wilcox (Silver Spring, MD: Linstok,
1989), 89-102.

17. Becker, H.J., Growing Old in Silence-, Padden and Humphries,
Deaf in America.

18. Davis, Long Lives; Sher, A., Aging in Post-Mao China: The
Politics of Veneration (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1984).

19. Davis, Long Lives.

20. Ikels, C., "New Options for the Urban Elderly," in Chinese
Society on the Eve of Tiananmen: The Impact of Reform, ed. D. Davis and E. Vogel (Cambridge: The Harvard University
Council of East Asian Studies, 1990), 214-42; Sher, Aging.

21. Davis, Long Lives; Ikels, "Aging and Disability."

22. Furth, H., Thinking without Language: Psychological Implications of Deafness (New York: Free Press, 1966); Jacobs, L., A
DeafAdult Speaks Out (Washington, DC: Gallaudet University
Press, 1969); Padden and Humphries, Deaf in America.

23. Ikels, C, "New Options."

24. Becker, Growing Old in Silence.

25. Rosenthal, R., and Jacobson, L., Pygmalion in the Classroom
(New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1968).

6 MINDFULNESS AND INTELLIGENCE

1. Spearman, C., The Abilities of Man (New York: Macmillan,
1997).

2. Gardner, H., Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 2, 7.

3. Goleman, D., Emotional Intelligence (New York: Bantam
Books, 1995).

4. Helmholtz, H. L., Handbuch der physiologischen Optik
(Helmholtz's treatise on physiological optics), trans. J. P. C.
Southall (Rochester, NY: The Optical Society of America,
1924), 3.

5. Boring, E. G.,AHistory of Experimental Psychology (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1950).

6. Darwin, C., Expressions of the Emotions in Man andAnimals
(New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1873).

7. Spencer, H., Principles of Psychology (New York: Appleton,
1883).

8. Thorndike, E. L., Selected Writings from a Connectionalist's
Psychology (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts,1949).

9. Ibid.

10. Cattell, R. B., Intelligence: Its Structure, Growth andAction
(Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1987); Gardner, H., Frames of Mind;
Horn, J., "Intellectual Ability Concepts," Advances in the Psychology of Human Intelligence 3 (1986): 35-77; Sternberg, R.J.,
Beyond IQ: A Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Sternberg, R. J.,
"Domain-Generality versus Domain-Specificity: The Life of
Impending Death of a False Dichotomy," Merrill-Palmer
Quarterly 35, no. 1 (1989): 115-30.

11. Sternberg, Beyond IQ.

12. James, W., The Meaning of Truth (Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 1878).

13. Dixon, R. A., Kramer, D. A., and Baltes, P. B., "Intelligence: A Life-Span Developmental Perspective," in Handbook of Intelligence: Theories, Measurements and Applications,
ed. B. B. Wolman (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1985),
301-50.

14. Eysenck, H. J., "A General Systems Approach to the
Measurement of Intelligence and Personality," in Intelligence
and Cognition: Contemporary Frames of Reference, ed. S. H.
Irvine and S. E. Newstead (Dordrecht, Netherlands: Marti nus Nijhoff, 1987), 349-75; Jensen, A. R., "Reaction Time
and Psychometric g," in A Model for Intelligence, ed. H. J.
Eysenck (New York: Springer, 1982), 93-132; Sternberg, R.
J., "Representation and Process in Linear Syllogistic Reasoning," Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 109 (1980):
119-59.

15. Frensch, P. A., and Sternberg, R. J., "Expertise and Intelligent Thinking: When Is It Worse to Know Better?" Advances in the Psychology of Human Intelligence 3 (1989): 15788.

16. James, The Meaning of Truth.

7 THE ILLUSION OF RIGHT ANSWERS

1. Jensen, A. R. "Intelligence: Definition, Measurement, and
Future Research," in What Is Intelligence?: Contemporary Viewpoints on Its Nature and Definition, ed. R. J. Sternberg and D. K.
Detterman (Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing, 1986), 109-12.