The Psychology Book (80 page)

games. After just 36 hours, one

Philip Zimbardo was born in

New York City in 1933 to a

prisoner had to be released because

The “prisoners”
rebelled against the

Sicilian-American family,

of uncontrolled crying, fits of rage,

“guards,” but the guards’ tactics became

and was a classmate of

and severe depression. When other

more aggressive. They began dividing

Stanley Milgram at James

the prisoners into groups, giving some

prisoners showed symptoms of

Monroe High School in the

rewards and others punishments.

acute distress, Zimbardo realized

Bronx. He went on to earn

the situation had become dangerous

his BA degree from Brooklyn

Sunday morning soon afterwards,

and ended the experiment.

College, New York, and a PhD

the prisoners were arrested at their

Zimbardo’s experiment showed

from Yale. He taught at several

homes, booked at a real police

that good people can be induced into

universities before moving to

station, then transferred to the

behaving in evil ways by immersion

Stanford in 1968, where he is

basement of the Stanford University

in “total situations” that have an

still a psychology professor.

psychology department, which had

apparently legitimizing ideology

In 2000, Zimbardo stated

been converted into a mock prison.

and approved rules and roles. The

that he agreed with George

implications are vast, as Zimbardo

Armitage Miller that it was

The prison environment

explains: “Any deed that any human

time to “give psychology away

to the public,” and his career

In order to make the experience as

being has ever done, however

has reflected this idea. In the

psychologically real as possible,

horrible, is possible for any of us

1980s he presented a popular

prisoners were stripped, searched,

to do—under the right or wrong

TV series on “discovering

deloused, and given uniforms and

situational pressures.” ■

psychology.“ The American

bedding upon their arrival. To

Psychological Foundation

heighten their sense of anonymity

presented him with an award

and dehumanization, they were

for Distinguished Lifetime

addressed only by their given

Contributions to General

numbers, and each had a chain

Psychology in 2000, and two

bolted around one ankle to serve as

years later he was elected

a reminder of their lack of freedom.

Our study… reveals the

president of the American

The guards wore military-style

power of social, institutional

Psychological Association.

uniforms and sunglasses (to make

forces to make good men

eye contact impossible), and carried

engage in evil deeds.

Key works

keys, whistles, handcuffs, and clubs.

Philip Zimbardo

1972
The Stanford Prison

They were on duty 24 hours a day,

Experiment

and were given complete control

2007
The Lucifer Effect

over the prisoners, with permission

2008
The Time Paradox

to employ whatever tactics they

2010
Psychology and Life

saw fit in order to maintain order.

256

TRAUMA MUST BE

UNDERSTOOD IN TERMS

OF THE RELATIONSHIP

BETWEEN THE INDIVIDUAL

AND SOCIETY

IGNACIO MARTIN-BARO (1942–1989)

IN CONTEXT

APPROACH

I
gnacio Martín-Baró made his impartial, universal approach to

claim that “trauma must be

psychology, he came to realize

understood in terms of the

that psychologists must take into

relationship between the individual

account the historical context and

Liberation psychology

and society” after witnessing first-

social conditions of the people they

BEFORE

hand the social injustices and

are studying. He believed that

violence endemic to El Salvador in

while some mental health problems

1965
Community psychology,

the 1980s. Rejecting the idea of an

reflect an abnormal reaction to

a new discipline investigating

the relationships between

individuals and communities,

arises from discussions at the

Swampscott Conference,

Because it aims to be
impartial and

Massachusetts.

universal
, mainstream psychology does not

address the way specific contexts

1970s
A crisis over the

and environments shape mental health.

relevance of social psychology,

the study of links between

social conditions, emotions,

and behaviors, erupts in

Britain, North America, and

most acutely in Latin America.

But to understand and treat mental

disorders, a psychologist should understand

AFTER

the
sociopolitical environment

1988
The Latin American

of his subjects and patients.

Institute of Mental Health and

Human Rights is founded.

1997
US psychologists Isaac

Prilleltensky and Dennis Fox

publish
Critical Psychology
,

Trauma must be understood

highlighting how traditional

in terms of the relationship between

psychology can help sustain

the individual and society.

injustice and social oppression.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 257

See also:
Lev Vygotsky 270 ■ Jerome Kagan 339

reasonably normal circumstances,

rather than considering how to

the problems specific to oppressed

awaken and drive the desire for

and exploited groups tend to reflect

justice or freedom.

a perfectly understandable and

normal reaction to abnormal

Traumatized societies

circumstances. Martín-Baró

His collection
Writings for a

The challenge is

decided that psychologists needed

Liberation Psychology
, published

to construct a new

to be more aware of how living

posthumously in 1994, captures

person in a new society.

within a difficult context affects

several decades of Martín-Baró’s

Ignacio Martín-Baró

mental health, and that they should

concerns. It addresses the use of

help the society being studied to

psychology as an instrument of war

transcend its history of oppression.

and political manipulation, the role

In the mid-1980s, he launched the

of religion in psychological warfare,

branch of liberation psychology,

and the impact of trauma and

which is committed to improving

violence on mental health. Martín-

the lives of all marginalized and

Baró studied areas where dependent

oppressed people.

economies and severe inequalities

well as its social and political

Liberation psychologists claim

had led to relentless poverty and

environment, and that individuals

that traditional psychology has

social exclusion. He examined the

must be treated with both these

many inadequacies. It frequently

psychological impact of civil war

factors in mind.

fails to offer practical solutions

and oppression in El Salvador, the

Martín-Baró focused on Central

to social problems; many of its

dictatorships in Argentina and

America, but his ideas are relevant

principles are developed from

Chile, and poverty in Puerto Rico,

anywhere social and political turmoil

artificial settings in wealthy

Venezuela, Brazil, and Costa Rica.

disrupts daily life. His humane and

countries, and so are unlikely to

Each involved a different set of

impassioned perspective draws a

translate to different situations;

circumstances, affecting the local

crucial link between mental health

it tends to ignore human moral

population in unique ways. He

and the struggle against injustice,

qualities, such as hope, courage,

concluded that the mental health

and attempts to find fresh ways of

and commitment; and its main goal

issues that arise in one context will

addressing associated psychological

seems to be to maximize pleasure,

reflect the history of the place as

issues more effectively. ■

Ignacio Martín-Baró

Ignacio Martín-Baró was born

Central America and eventually

in Valladolid, Spain. In 1959, he

becoming head of its psychology

joined the Jesuit order, and was

department. Martín-Baró was

sent to South America. There, he

openly critical of El Salvador’s

studied at the Catholic University

rulers, and in 1986 set up the

in Quito, Ecuador, and at the

University Institute of Public

Javeriana University in Bogotà,

Opinion. He and five others

Colombia. In 1966, Martín-Baró,

were murdered by an army

now a Jesuit priest, was sent to

death squad for their exposure of

El Salvador. He continued his

political corruption and injustice.

studies at the University of

Central America in San Salvador,

Key works

gaining a licentiate in psychology

in 1975. He later earned a PhD in

1983
Action and Ideology

social psychology from the

1989
System, Group and Power

University of Chicago, before

1994
Writings for a Liberation

returning to the University of

Psychology

DEVELOP

PSYCHOL

FROM INFANT

TO ADULT