The Psychology Book (84 page)

egocentric, able to see the world

From years two to four, the child

offering an understanding of what

only from their own viewpoint.

thinks in absolute terms (such as

constitutes “a kitchen,” a “best

At the beginning of this stage,

“big” or “biggest”); from four to

friend,” or “democratic

infants practice reflexes without

seven, they begin to use relative

understanding or intention; later

terms (such as “bigger” or

they can extend and coordinate

“heavier”). The ability to think

reflexes with objects. Then they

logically is still limited and children

begin to coordinate their senses in

remain egocentric, unable to see

a way that anticipates events; for

things from another’s perspective.

example, they can imagine objects

The third stage is the concrete

Knowledge…is a

that are not present and find hidden

operational stage, and this is

system of transformations

ones. They begin to experiment

when a child becomes capable of

that become progressively

and set goals in their use of objects,

performing logical operations, but

adequate.

and think about a problem before

only in the presence of actual

Jean Piaget

acting. These developments mark

(concrete) objects. The child now

the completion of the first stage.

begins to grasp the concept of

As the child moves toward

conservation, understanding that

the development of self-awareness,

the quantity of an object remains

they now have the tools of

the same despite physical changes

representational thought and can

in its arrangement. They realize

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 267

that if you pour liquid from a short,

required through each of the stages;

wide glass into a tall, thin one, the

assimilation, accommodation, and

amount of liquid remains the same

equilibrium. Assimilation is the

despite the difference in height.

process by which we incorporate

Children can also understand that

new information into existing

objects can be sorted according to

schemas. Accommodation is

Intelligence is what you

many qualities simultaneously—a

required when, in the process of

use when you don’t know

marble can be large, green, or clear.

assimilating, we discover that we

what to do.

A little less egocentric now, children

need to modify existing knowledge

Jean Piaget

begin to incorporate more relativity

or skills. A child who is able to

into their viewpoints.

assimilate successfully most or all

During the fourth stage—the

new experiences is said to be in

formal operational stage—children

a state of equilibrium. However,

begin to manipulate ideas (rather

if the existing schemas are

than simply objects) and are able

inadequate for coping with new

to reason purely on the basis of

situations successfully, then the

verbal statements. They no longer

child is in a state of cognitive

approach to teaching, in theory and

need to refer to concrete objects,

disequilibrium, and the schemas

in practice. Rather than trying to

and can follow an argument. They

need to develop in order to

teach a child to think and behave

start to think hypothetically, and

accommodate the necessary

like an adult, educators were

this new capacity for imagination,

information. Essentially, this is the

encouraged to view their

and their ability to discuss abstract

process of adaptation, one of the

work as an opportunity to engage

ideas, reveals that they have now

most basic forms of learning.

children in novel and individual

become less egocentric.

modes of thinking. Piaget believed

Impact on education

that education should inspire

Reaching equilibrium

Piaget’s work inspired the

people to create, invent, and

In addition to defining the four

transformation of the education

innovate, and actively discourage

stages, Piaget identified several

systems of Europe and the US

them from conforming or following

fundamental facets of the

during the 1970s and 80s, bringing

established guidelines at the

developmental process that were

about a more child-centered

expense of imagination. If the

natural process of learning—from

infancy onward—is individual,

active, and exploratory, then so too

should be a system of education

that guides children’s formal

intellectual development.

Another vitally important aspect

of a child-centered education is an

awareness of the concept of

“readiness,” which involves setting

limits on learning based on the

child’s stage of development.

One of Piaget’s most enduring

contributions to the field of

education, particularly with ❯❯

Educators should not insist

on a particular way of doing or

understanding something, Piaget

(pictured left) asserted, but nurture

children’s natural learning processes.

268 JEAN PIAGET

Piaget believed that children learn

from being active rather than from

passive observation, and teachers

must adapt to this. Interaction

between students is of primary

significance in the classroom, and

Children have real

having established that one of the

understanding only

best ways to secure knowledge is

of that which they

to teach it to somebody else, it

invent themselves.

follows that if children are allowed

Jean Piaget

to discuss topics actively among

themselves (rather than listening

passively to lessons), they are more

likely to deepen and consolidate

their existing knowledge.

Children at this Montessori school

Moral education

bring Piaget’s ideas to life. They are

As with intellectual development,

promoted peer interaction within

encouraged to build their own learning

Piaget believed that children also

the classroom as an integral part

with hands-on activities and plenty of

develop morally in stages and, for

of the learning experience.

discussion with their peers.

the most part, autonomously. Real

The role of the teacher in

moral growth is not the product

Piaget’s child-centered classroom

regards to mathematics and

of adult instruction, but is based

is, therefore, almost one of a mentor

science, is the acknowledgement

on a child’s own observations of

and an enabler rather than that of

that teachers need to be aware of

the world. Piaget viewed peer

a standard instructor. Teachers

and honor an individual child’s

interaction as absolutely crucial for

need to assess carefully each

capacity to deal with a novel

the moral development of children.

student’s current level of cognitive

experience or to take on fresh

Peers, not parents or other authority

development and then set tasks

information. The tasks that a

figures, are seen as being vital to

that are intrinsically motivating.

teacher sets should reflect, and also

moral growth, providing a key

Interestingly, teachers must also

be adapted as precisely as possible

source for understanding concepts

create cognitive disequilibrium

to, the individual student’s

such as reciprocity, equality, and

in their students in order to help

cognitive level and capabilities.

justice. Consequently, Piaget keenly

them advance to the next stage of

Jean Piaget

Born in Neuchâtel, Switzerland,

observations about cognitive

Jean Piaget grew up with an

development. In 1955, he

insatiable interest in the natural

created the International Centre

world, and at the age of 11 he

for Genetic Epistemology and

wrote his first scientific paper.

was its director until his death

He studied natural sciences and

in 1980. He was awarded prizes

earned a PhD from the University

and honorary degrees worldwide.

of Neuchâtel at the age of 22. His

interest moved to psychoanalysis

Key works

and he developed his theories of

genetic epistemology in France.

1932
The Moral Judgment of

In 1921, he became the director

the Child

of the Jean-Jacques Rousseau

1951
The Psychology of

Institute in Geneva. He married

Intelligence

Valentine Châtenay and they had

1952
The Origins of Intelligence

three children, who were the

in Children

subjects of many of Piaget’s

1962
The Psychology of the Child

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 269

development, thereby providing

olds were able to adjust their

theory—which states that children

genuine learning opportunities.

explanation of something in order

require the help of adults or older

They should focus on the process

to clarify it for a blindfolded person,

children to complete some tasks—

of learning, rather than on the

and would use simpler forms of

served as a response to Piaget.

achievement of end results, by

speech when talking to younger

Another area of exploration has

encouraging their students to ask

children, which is inconsistent

been the assumed universality of

more questions, experiment, and

with Piaget’s description of an

the developmental stages identified

explore, even if that means making

egocentric child who has no

by Piaget. Although he had no

some mistakes along the way.

awareness of the needs of others.

compelling evidence to support

Above all, they must engender a