The Transformation of the World (200 page)

  67
. Stearns,
Industrial Revolution
, pp. 87ff.

  68
. Smil,
Creating the Twentieth Century
, pp. 33–97 (“The Age of Electricity”).

  69
. A. D. Chandler,
Visible Hand
, ch. 5 and passim; Zunz,
Making America Corporate
, pp. 40f.

  70
. Woodruff,
Impact
, p. 150 (Tab. IV/1).

  71
. Nugent,
Crossings
, p. 12.

  72
. Or, to put it differently, the 1880s ushered in the “fourth wave of globalization”: Therborn,
Globalizations
, p. 161.

  73
. In his great history of Western music, Richard Taruskin diverges from this view by arguing in detail that nineteenth-century music ended only with the First World War. The “long” fin de siècle, he maintains, was as an age of “maximalist” intensification of the Romantic striving for expression (Mahler, Debussy, Scriabin, Richard Strauss's early operas, the Schönberg of the
Gurrelieder
and the Stravinsky of the Ballets Russes). The musical twentieth century began only with the advent of a greater artistic stringency, with the emphasis on irony, pastiche, and constructivism under the aegis of neoclassicism, New Objectivity and twelve-tone technique. See Taruskin,
Western Music
, vol. 4, pp. 448, 471.

  74
. The comparison between India and Italy is drawn in: Antony Copley, “Congress and Risorgimento: A Comparative Study of Nationalism,” in: Low,
Indian National Congress
, pp. 1–21; see also Marr,
Vietnamese Anticolonialism
, p. 47.

  75
. A. Black,
Islamic Political Thought
, pp. 295–99, 301–4.

  76
. On the complicated dating of Kang Youwei's intellectual evolution, see Hsiao Kung-chuan,
A Modern China
, p. 56.

  77
. See R. W. Bowen's major study,
Rebellion
.

  78
. Though never fully elaborated, these ideas appear most clearly in Braudel,
History and the Social Sciences
.

  79
. J. Goldstone,
Problem
, p. 269.

  80
. Koselleck speaks of “structures of repetition,” in
Zeitschichten
, p. 21. Charles Tilly has developed similar ideas in a number of writings.

  81
. An original way of differentiating these modes of historical change may be found in Laslett,
Social Structural Time
.

  82
. See Koselleck,
Futures Past
, p. 96.

  83
. Schumpeter,
Economic Analysis
, pp. 738–50.

  84
. These approaches are synthesized in Rasler and Thompson,
Great Powers
. Three major representatives are George Modelski, Joshua S. Goldstein, and Ulrich Menzel.

  85
. For a concise discussion, see Schmied,
Soziale Zeit
, pp. 144–63.

  86
. Gardet et al.,
Cultures and Time
, p. 212.

  87
. Aung-Thwin,
Spirals
, pp. 584, 590, 592, 595.

  88
. See Osterhammel
, Entzauberung Asiens
, pp. 390–93. Around 1900, Japanese intellectuals saw the rest of Asia, especially Korea, in a similar light.

  89
. At its most effective in Fabian,
Time and the Other
. He speaks there of a “denial of coevalness.”

  90
. A brief introduction to the question is given in Östör,
Vessels of Time
, pp. 12–25.

  91
. Surveys are Wendorff,
Zeit und Kultur
; J. T. Fraser,
Voices of Time
; and a classical text, Needham,
Grand Titration
, pp. 218–98.

  92
. This is one of the main themes in Galison,
Einstein's Clocks
.

  93
. See Blaise,
Time Lord
.

  94
. Dohrn-van Rossum,
History of the Hour
, p. 348.

  95
. Bartky,
Selling the True Time
, pp. 93, 114.

  96
. Whitrow,
Time
, p. 164.

  97
. Bartky,
Selling the True Time
, pp. 139f., 146.

  98
. I am borrowing Vanessa Ogle's argument about the interplay of nationalizing and internationalizing time. See her forthcoming book on the topic:
Contesting Time: The Global Struggle for Uniformity and Its Unintended Consequences
(Harvard University Press).

  99
. Galinson,
Einstein's Clocks
, pp. 153, 162 ff.

100
. Landes,
Revolution in Time
, pp. 97, 287.

101
. Mumford,
Technics
, p. 14.

102
. Coulmas,
Japanische Zeiten
, pp. 142, 233.

103
. Kreiser,
Istanbul
, p. 181.

104
. E. P. Thompson,
Time
.

105
. Gay,
Clock Synchrony
, pp. 112, 136.

106
. Voth,
Time and Work
, p. 257 and passim. This also contains a summary and evaluation of older studies.

107
. Ibid., pp. 47–58.

108
. David Landes gave an unambiguous answer in his great work on the history of clocks: “The clock did not create an interest in time measurement, the interest in time measurement led to the invention of the clock.”
Revolution in Time
, p. 58.

109
. On the (not very precisely developed) concept of metronomization, see Young,
Metronomic Society
. And on the mechanization of classical labor, see the work by the Swiss architectural historian and theorist Sigfried Giedion,
Mechanization
.

110
. For the example of a seminomadic tribe in Morocco, see Eickelman,
Time
, esp. pp. 45f., and for present-day Bali, Henk Schulte Nordholt, “Plotting Time in Bali: Articulating Plurality,” in: Schendel and Schulte Nordholt,
Time Matters
, pp. 57–76.

111
. The founder of ethnological functionalism, Bronisław Malinowski, already noted this in the early twentieth century. See Munn,
Cultural Anthropology
, pp. 96, 102–5.

112
. T. C. Smith,
Peasant Time
, pp. 180f., 184–89, 194f.

113
. M. M. Smith,
Mastered by the Clock
, pp. 5–7.

114
. A lot of relevant material, especially from Western Europe, has been collected and discussed in: Borscheid,
Tempo-Virus
, esp. chs. 5–7, and Kaschuba,
Überwindung
; also still valuable is Kern,
Culture
, pp. 109–30.

115
. See the historical phenomenology of rail travel in Schivelbusch,
Railway Journey
; Freeman,
Railways
.

116
. Cvetkovski,
Modernisierung
, pp. 192, 222, 236f., 242f.

117
. Berlioz,
Memoirs
, pp. 456f.

118
. Koselleck,
Zeitschichten
, p. 153.

119
. See, in addition to Koselleck: E. W. Becker,
Zeit der Revolution
, pp. 14–16; and numerous works by Lucian Hölscher.

120
. Litwack,
Been in the Storm so Long
, p. 172 and passim. 121. Shih,
Taiping Ideology
, p. 75.

CHAPTER III: Space

    1
. Koselleck,
Zeitschichten
, p. 9.

    2
. Harvey,
Postmodernity
, p. 240.

    3
. The key text here is Livingstone,
Geographical Tradition
; see also Marie-Claire Robic, “Geography,” in: T. M. Porter and Ross,
Modern Social Sciences
, pp. 379–90.

    4
. On the example of the Dufour Map of Switzerland, see Gugerli and Speich,
Topografien
, p. 76.

    5
. See, e.g., Dabringhaus,
Territorialer Nationalismus
, pp.57ff.

    6
. This story has become widely known from Sten Nadolny's novel
Discovery of Slowness
.

    7
. Excellent on the Royal Navy and Exploration: Angster,
Erdbeeren und Piraten
.

    8
. Japan is the only non-European country for which there is a near-complete edition of available European reports up to approximately 1830: Kapitza,
Japan in Europa
, which includes extracts from Kaempfer.

    9
. On the organization of research journeys, see the exemplary study of Murchison's travels: Stafford,
Scientist of Empire
.

  10
. A. v. Humboldt,
Relation historique
.

  11
. The results of Wilhelm von Humboldt's trip are contained in “Die Vasken, oder Bemerkungen auf einer Reise durch Biscaya und das französische Basquenland im Frühling des Jahres 1801” (
Werke
, vol. 2, pp. 418–627).

  12
. Isabella Bird's travel books were republished in a twelve-volume edition in 1997:
Collected Travel Writings
.

  13
. Cosgrove,
Apollo's Eye
, p. 209 (and Fig. 210).

  14
. See Carter,
Botany Bay
, esp. pp. 4–33.

  15
. Barrow,
Making History
, pp. 101, 103.

  16
. M. W. Lewis and Wigen,
Myth of Continents
, p. ix.

  17
. Ibid., p. 181; Foucher,
Fronts et frontières
, p. 156.

  18
. M. W. Lewis and Wigen,
Myth of Continents
, p. 172.

  19
. J. D. Legge, “The Writing of Southeast Asian History,” in: Tarling,
Cambridge History of Southeast Asia
, p 1–50, at 1.

  20
. Sinor,
Introduction
, esp. p. 18.

  21
. Such a concept works best for premodern periods: Beckwith,
Empires of the Silk Road
.

  22
. Mackinder's lecture was published in:
Geographical Journal
23, pp. 421–37.

  23
. See the useful collection Bonine et al.,
Is There a Middle East?
, esp. Huseyin Yilmaz, “The Eastern Question and the Ottoman Empire: The Genesis of the Near and Middle East in the Nineteenth Century” (pp. 1–35); see also Scheffler,
“Fertile Crescent.”
Said,
Orientalism
effectively deconstructed (and rightly criticized) the concept of “the Orient” as a typical example of European “Othering.”

  24
. J. A. Fogel,
Articulating the Sinosphere
.

  25
. See the extract from Fukuzawa's text in: Lu,
Japan
, vol. 2, pp. 351–53. Cf. Tanaka,
Japan's Orient
, whose evidence is taken mainly from the period
after
1890.

  26
. See, in particular: Sven Saaler, “Pan-Asianismus im Japan der Meiji-und der Taishō-Zeit: Wurzeln, Entstehung und Anwendung einer Ideologie,” in: Amelung et al.,
Selbstbehauptungsdiskurse
, pp. 127–57.

  27
. C. Ritter,
Erdkunde
, vol. 1: Der Norden und Nord-Osten von Hoch-Asien, p. xv.

  28
. C. Ritter,
Einleitung
, p. 161.

  29
. On the development of descriptive geographical terminology, see Godlewska,
Geography Unbound
, pp. 41–45.

  30
. See, most generally: C. Ritter,
Erdkunde
, vol. 1: Der Norden und Nord-Osten von Hoch-Asien, pp. 63f.

  31
. C. Ritter,
Erdkunde
, vols. 1–3.

  32
. Ratzel,
Politische Geographie
, chs. 11–28; on islands ch. 24. These parts of the book are more valuable than Ratzel's notorious “fundamental law of the spatial growth of states” (chs. 8–10).

  33
. Reclus,
L'Homme et la terre
, vol. 1, p. 123.

  34
. Ibid., pp. 348–53.

  35
. W. D. Smith,
Sciences of Culture
, pp. 154–61; Petermann,
Geschichte der Ethnologie
, pp. 583ff.

  36
. Bonnett,
Idea of the West
, pp. 14ff.

  37
. Bulliet,
Islamo-Christian Civilization
, pp. 5f. A giant “History of the West” by the eminent German historian Heinrich-August Winkler sees monotheism as a distinctive cultural trait of the West and traces the origins of a “Western project” back to the Egyptian pharaoh Echnaton: Winkler,
Geschichte des Westens
, vol. 1, pp. 25, 27f.

  38
. Carmagnani,
The Other West
,

  39
. See
chapter 17
, below.

  40
. Asbach,
Erfindung
; Woolf,
European World View
.

  41
. Boer,
Europa
, pp. 99–110; for a marvelous history of iconic representation see Wintle,
Image of Europe
.

  42
. Boer,
Europa
, pp. 181ff. (esp. the map on p. 182).

  43
. Schroeder,
Transformation
, esp. pp. 575–82.

  44
. Isabella,
Risorgimento in Exile
.

  45
. Gollwitzer,
Geschichte des weltpolitischen Denkens
, vol. 2, pp. 83ff.

  46
. See the map in Lichtenberger,
Europa
, p. 43.

  47
. Malia,
Russia
, p. 92.

  48
. Bassin,
Imperial Visions
, pp. 37ff.

  49
. Hauner,
What Is Asia to Us?
chs. 2–4.

  50
. See Malia,
Russia
, p. 165.

  51
. Kreiser and Neumann,
Türkei
, p. 283. An alternative view sees the turning point as the Treaty of Karlowitz with Austria.