The Transformation of the World (220 page)

102
. Kolchin,
Unfree Labour
, p. 52 (Tab. 3).

103
. Ibid., p. 54 (Tabs. 5, 6).

104
. See Bush,
Servitude
, pp. 19–27; Stanley L. Engerman, “Slavery, Serfdom and Other Forms of Coerced Labour: Similarities and Differences,” in Bush,
Serfdom
, pp. 18–41, at 21–26.

105
. Kolchin,
Sphinx
, pp. 98f.

106
. Kolchin,
Unfree Labour
, pp. 359–75; idem, “After Serfdom: Russian Emancipation in Comparative Perspective,” in Engerman,
Terms of Labour
, pp. 87–115.

107
. Blickle,
Leibeigenschaft
, p. 119.

108
. M. Weber,
General Economic History
, p. 108.

109
. Teófilo F. Ruiz, “The Peasantries of Iberia, 1400–1800,” in Scott,
Peasantries
, pp. 49–73, at 64.

110
. Blum,
End of the Old Order
, p. 373.

111
. This is the basic argument in Blickle,
Leibeigenschaft
.

112
. See
chapter 4
, above, and Northrup,
Indentured Labour
.

113
. Steinfeld,
Invention of Free Labor
, pp. 4–7, 147f., 155–57.

114
. Vormbaum,
Politik und Gesinderecht
, pp. 305, 356–59.

115
. Fogel and Engerman,
Time on the Cross
.

116
. Steinfeld,
Coercion
, p. 8.

117
. Peck,
Reinventing Free Labor
, esp. 84ff.

118
. Rosselli,
Singers
, p. 5.

119
. Details on individual European countries may be found in van der Linden and Rojahn,
Formation
.

120
. Castel,
Metamorphosen
, pp. 189, 254f. There is an English translation of this important work:
Manual Workers to Wage Laborers: Transformation of the Social Question
(New Brunswick, NJ 2003).

121
. Hennock,
Origin of the Welfare State
, p. 338.

122
. Elson,
End of the Peasantry
, pp. 23f.

CHAPTER XIV: Networks

    1
. See
chapters 5
and
8
, above.

    2
. There is now a sizable theoretical and historical literature on networks. Beyrer and Andritzky,
Das Netz
, is an especially instructive exhibition catalogue focusing on visual images.

    3
. What this meant for the conception of cities is well brought out in Sennett,
Flesh and Stone
, pp. 256–81.

    4
. For a European overview, see R. Millward,
Enterprise
.

    5
. Dehs,
Jules Verne
, pp. 211, 368.

    6
. Bagwell,
Transport Revolution
, pp. 17, 33.

    7
. Woud,
Het lege land
, pp. 115–32.

    8
. L. Ray Gunn, “Antebellum Society and Politics (1825–1865),” in M. M. Klein,
Empire State
pp. 307–415, at 312.

    9
. Smil,
Two Prime Movers
, p. 381.

  10
. P. Clark,
Cambridge Urban History of Britain
, vol. 2, p. 718.

  11
. Bled,
Wien
, p. 199.

  12
. Rawlinson,
China's Struggle
.

  13
. C. Howe,
Origins
, p. 268.

  14
. Broeze,
Underdevelopment
, p. 445.

  15
. Hugill,
World Trade
, p. 127.

  16
. R. Reinhard,
Erdkunde
, p. 194.

  17
. Sartorius von Waltershausen,
Weltwirtschaft
, p. 269. On the extraordinary rise of Hong Kong from “fishing village” to Asia's main transshipment center, see D. R. Meyer,
Hong Kong
, pp. 52ff.

  18
. Maps in Hugill,
World Trade
, p. 136 (Fig. 3–3); R. Reinhard,
Erdkunde
, p. 201.

  19
. Rieger,
Technology
, pp. 158–92.

  20
. Hugill,
World Trade
, pp. 249ff.

  21
. This is reflected in the national framework typical even of the best survey literature, e.g., Roth,
Jahrhundert der Eisenbahn
; Wolmar,
Fire and Steam
.

  22
. Youssef Cassis, “Big Business,” in: G. Jones and Zeitlin,
Oxford Handbook of Business History
, pp. 171–93, at 175f.

  23
. Veenendaal,
Railways
, pp. 29, 50.

  24
. Map in Fage and Oliver,
Cambridge History of Africa
, vol. 7, p. 82.

  25
. Huenemann,
Dragon
, gives details of the construction progress (pp. 252–57).

  26
. R. Owen,
Middle East
, p. 246.

  27
. On national “technology styles,” in early American and German railroad construction, see Dunlavy,
Politics
, pp. 202–34.

  28
. François Caron, “The Birth of a Network Technology: The First French Railway System,” in M. Berg and Bruland,
Technological Revolutions
, pp. 275–91.

  29
. A charming discussion of this rivalry is Grossman,
Charles Dickens's Networks
, ch. 1.

  30
. Schivelbusch,
Railway Journey
; Freeman,
Railways
; Desportes,
Paysages en mouvement
.

  31
. See the general reflections in R. White,
Railroaded
, pp. 140–78.

  32
. F. Caron,
Histoire des chemins de fer en France
, vol. 1, pp. 84, 113, 169.

  33
. Chang Jui-te, “Technology Transfer in Modern China: The Case of Railway Enterprise in Central China and Manchuria,” in: Elleman and Kotkin,
Manchurian Railways
, pp. 105–22, at 111.

  34
. Ochsenwald,
Hijaz Railway
, pp. 30ff., 152.

  35
. October 23, 1828: Eckermann,
Conversations
, p. 279.

  36
. Ronald Findlay and Kevin H. O'Rourke, “Commodity Market Integration, 1500–2000,” in Bordo et al.,
Globalization
, pp. 13–62, at 36.

  37
. See the first points made in Florian Cebulla, “Grenzüberschreitender Schienenverkehr. Problemstellungen, Methoden, Forschungsüberblick,” in Burri et al.,
Internationalität
, pp. 21–35.

  38
. There are good country studies in C. B. Davis,
Railway Imperialism
.

  39
. A. Mitchell,
Train Race
.

  40
. Bulliet,
Camel
, pp. 216ff.

  41
. Cvetkovski,
Modernisierung
, pp. 79, 167f., 189.

  42
. Wenzlhuemer,
Connecting the Nineteenth-Century World
, p. 119 (Tab. 5.1)

  43
. See also
chapters 1
and
    9
, above.

  44
. Briggs and Burke,
Media
, p. 134. More on railroads and the telegraph in Wenzlhuemer,
Connecting the Nineteenth-Century World
, pp. 31–34.

  45
. Dematerialization as the crucial feature of telecommunication has been highlighted by Wenzlhuemer,
Connecting the Nineteenth-Century World
, pp. 30, 62.

  46
. C. S. Fischer,
America Calling
.

  47
. Hugill,
Global Communications
, pp. 53f.; Hills,
Struggle for Control
, p. 168.

  48
. Winston,
Media Technology
, p. 53.

  49
. Ibid., pp. 254f.

  50
. Horst A. Wessel, “Die Rolle des Telephons in der Kommunikationsrevolution des 19. Jahrhunderts,” in: North,
Kommunikationsrevolutionen
, pp. 101–27, at 104f.

  51
. Strachan,
First World War
, pp. 233f.

  52
. Wheeler,
Mr. Lincoln's T-Mails
.

  53
. Wobring,
Globalisierung
, pp. 39ff., 80ff.

  54
. Kaukiainen,
Shrinking the World
—an article of major importance.

  55
. On the construction of the network, see Headrick,
Invisible Weapon
, pp. 28–49.

  56
. Jorma Ahvenainen, “The Role of Telegraphs in the 19th-Century Revolution of Communications,” in: North,
Kommunikationsrevolutionen
, pp. 73–80, at 75f.; G. Clark,
Farewell to Alms
, pp. 306f.; Ferguson,
Rothschild
, vol. 1, p. 98.

  57
. There is good illustrative material in Roderic H. Davison, “Effect of the Electric Telegraph on the Conduct of Ottoman Foreign Relations,” in: Farah,
Decision Making
, pp. 53–66.

  58
. Headrick,
Invisible Weapon
, pp. 38f. (Tabs. 3.2, 3.3); Jürgen Wilke, “The Telegraph and Transatlantic Communications Relations,” in: Finzsch and Lehmkuhl,
Atlantic Communications
, pp. 107–34, at 116.

  59
. Nickels,
Under the Wire
, p. 33.

  60
. Ibid., pp. 44–46.

  61
. Headrick,
Invisible Weapon
, pp. 84f.

  62
. R.W.D. Boyce,
Imperial Dreams
, p. 40.

  63
. Cornelius Neutsch, “Briefverkehr als Medium internationaler Kommunikation im ausgehenden 19. und beginnenden 20. Jahrhundert,” in: M. North,
Kommunikationsrevolutionen
, pp. 129–55, at 131f.

  64
. Cvetkovski,
Modernisierung
, pp. 135f., 149; Henkin,
Postal Age
, chs. 1–2.

  65
. Hausman et al.,
Global Electrification
, pp. 18f.

  66
. Hughes,
Networks of Power
, pp. 232 and 175–200—one of the most important books on the technological history of the long “turn of the century.”

  67
. On world trade since c. 1850 see in exhaustive detail: Steven C. Topik and Allen Wells, “Commodity Chains in a Global Economy,” in: E. S. Rosenberg,
A World Connecting
, pp. 593–812.

  68
. A pioneer of this interpretation was Frank Perlin. See the collection of his influential essays:
Invisible City
.

  69
. The copious literature on free trade is strongly geared to Britain: see above all A. Howe,
Free Trade
. Trentmann,
Free Trade Nation
, esp. chs. 1–3, breaks new ground on free trade as a central element of Britain's political culture. The classical all-European perspective is Kindleberger,
Rise of Free Trade
.

  70
. Sugihara,
Japan as an Engine
.

  71
. Latham,
Rice
.

  72
. Cushman,
Fields from the Sea
, p. 66.

  73
. Hancock,
Citizens of the World
, esp. pp. 279ff., on the integrative lifestyle of the gentleman.

  74
. See H. V. Bowen,
Business of Empire
, pp. 151ff. for the East India Company.

  75
. Çizaka,
Business Partnerships
.

  76
. Gary G. Hamilton and Chang Wei-an, “The Importance of Commerce in the Organization of China's Late Imperial Economy,” in: Arrighi et al.,
Resurgence of East Asia
, pp. 173–213.

  77
. Markovits,
Global World
, esp. ch. 5.

  78
. Claude Markovits, “Merchant Circulation in South Asia (18
^th
to 20
^th
Centuries): The Rise of Pan-Indian Merchant Networks,” in Markovits et al.,
Society and Circulation
, pp. 131–62, and see a recent collection of Markovits's seminal papers:
Merchants
. On Chinese networks, often centered on Hong Kong, see D. R. Meyer,
Hong Kong
, pp. 91–98.

  79
. Torp,
Herausforderung
, p. 41; and more data in Rostow,
World Economy
, p. 67 (Tab. II-7). There is a brilliant interpretation of the consequences in Rogowski,
Commerce and Coalitions
, pp. 21–60.

  80
. Maddison,
Contours
, p. 81 (Tab. 2.6).

  81
. Kenwood and Loughed,
Growth
, p. 80.

  82
. R. Miller,
Britain and Latin America
, pp. 79, 83f., 98.

  83
. For a good example, see Topik,
Coffee Anyone?
, esp. pp. 242ff.

  84
. Sydney Pollard, “The Europeanization of the International Economy, 1800–1870,” in: Aldcroft and Sutcliffe,
Europe
, pp. 50–101.

  85
. For data on import tariffs, see Amsden,
Rise of “the Rest,”
pp. 44f. (Tab. 2.3).

  86
. G. Clark,
Farewell to Alms
, p. 309.

  87
. More work remains to be done on caravan traffic and trade. But see the excellent study Lydon,
On Trans-Saharan Trails
, esp. pp. 206–73 on the organization of caravans and the importance of trust among their participants.

  88
. Ferguson,
Rothschild
, vol. 1; Munro,
Maritime Enterprise
.

  89
. Sugihara,
Japan
, chs. 2–4; several examples, drawing also on Korea, are given in Sugiyama and Grove,
Commercial Networks
, esp. chs. 1, 3, 5, 6.

  90
. The pioneer of this interpretation has been Hamashita Takeshi, see
China, East Asia and the Global Economy
—a collection of his papers.

  91
. Findlay and O'Rourke,
Power and Plenty
, pp. 307f.