The Transformation of the World (216 page)

188
. Excellent on this is Vanessa Martin,
Qajar Pact
, which gives an especially impressive account of the “agency” of women (pp. 95–112).

189
. Hsiao Kung-chuan,
Rural China
, pp. 502f.

190
. See Gelvin,
Modern Middle East
, pp. 139–46.

CHAPTER XI: The State

    1
. For a long-term perspective see Charles S. Maier, “Leviathan 2.0: Inventing Modern Statehood,” in: E. S. Rosenberg,
A World Connecting
, pp. 29–282. Any global history of the state has to engage with this brilliant analysis. Since this is impossible here, I leave the chapter unrevised as it was written in 2006 and published in 2009.

    2
. On the novelty of the Asian “gunpowder empires,” see Finer,
History of Government
, vol. 3, chs. 1–4; also Lieberman,
Beyond Binary Histories
.

    3
. Ernest Gellner, “Tribalism and the State in the Middle East,” in: Khoury and Kostiner,
Tribes
, pp. 109–26, at 109.

    4
. Carl A. Trocki, “Political Structures in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries,” in: Tarling,
Cambridge History of Southeast Asia
, vol. 2, pp. 79–130, at 81.

    5
. M. Weber,
Economy and Society
, vol. 1, p. 54.

    6
. O'Rourke,
Warriors
, p. 43.

    7
. Earle,
Pirate Wars
, pp. 231ff.

    8
. M. Mann,
Sources of Social Power
, vol. 2, p. 6.

    9
. Birmingham,
Portugal
, p. 125.

  10
. See J. Lynch,
Argentine Dictator
; pp. 201–46 on Rosas's reign of terror.

  11
. There is a fine character portrait of Díaz in A. Knight,
Peculiarities
, pp. 102f.; also M. C. Meyer and Sherman,
Course of Mexican History
, pp. 453–57. On classical
caudillismo
before ca. 1850, see J. Lynch,
Caudillos
, esp. pp. 183–237, 402–37. Excellent on violence and the rudimentary state organization in nineteenth-century Hispanic America is Riekenberg,
Gewaltsegmente
, pp. 35–79, incl. 59–63 on caudillos. For Central America, in particular, see Holden,
Armies
, esp. pp. 25–50.

  12
. Unlike in neighboring Uruguay, the Argentine caudillos who came after Rosas were “tamed” by the landowning oligarchy: R. M. Schneider,
Latin American Political History
, p. 139.

  13
. For an overview, see Herzfeld,
Anthropology
, pp. 118–32.

  14
. A key text is Newbury,
Patrons
, esp. the survey on pp. 256–84.

  15
. C. M. Clark,
Kaiser Wilhelm II
, p. 162. The standard biography is J.C.G. Röhl,
Wilhelm II
.

  16
. Schudson,
Good Citizen
, p. 132.

  17
. H.C.G. Matthew,
Gladstone
, pp. 293–312, esp. 310f.

  18
. J. Lynch,
Argentine Dictator
, p. 112; also Bernand,
Buenos Aires
, pp. 149f., 155–57.

  19
. P. Brandt et al.,
Handbuch
, p. 42.

  20
. Rickard,
Australia
, p. 113.

  21
. Wortman,
Scenarios of Power
, p. 347.

  22
. The panorama of monarchical forms is described in D. J. Steinberg et al.,
Southeast Asia
, pp. 57–91.

  23
. Pennell,
Morocco
, pp. 158–63.

  24
. For India, see Fisher,
Indirect Rule in India
.

  25
. Thant,
Modern Burma
, pp. 209f.; Kershaw,
Monarchy in South-East Asia
, p. 25.

  26
. Among numerous studies of princely states in India, an outstanding work (on South-east India) is P. G. Price,
Kingship
.

  27
. Kershaw,
Monarchy in South-East Asia
, p. 26.

  28
. Ibid., pp. 28f.

  29
. M. D. Sahlins,
Anahulu
, pp. 76f.

  30
. As Geertz, for example, argues in
Negara
; the one-sidedness of this influential account has been corrected by Schulte Nordholt,
Spell of Power
, which above all places Geertz's static view in its own historical context (esp. pp. 5–11).

  31
. Kroen,
Politics and Theater
.

  32
. There is a fine discussion of this in relation to Burma in Koenig,
Burmese Polity
, pp. 16–84.

  33
. Morris,
Washing of the Spears
, pp. 79f., 91, 98f. On Shaka and his demonization, see C. Hamilton,
Terrific Majesty
.

  34
. Laband,
Kingdom in Crisis
, pp. 22 f.; Cope,
Characters of Blood
, pp. 266f. A classic on forms of monarchy in Africa is Fortes and Evans-Pritchard,
African Political Systems
; see esp. Fortes on the Zulus (pp. 25–55).

  35
. David K. Wyatt, “The Eighteenth Century in Southeast Asia,” in: Blussé and Gaastra,
Eighteenth Century
, pp. 39–55, here 47.

  36
. On the taxonomy of constitutional forms, see Kirsch,
Monarch
, pp. 412f. (chart); cf. P. Brandt et al.,
Handbuch
, pp. 41–51.

  37
. E. N. Anderson and Anderson,
Political Institutions
, pp. 35—a classic.

  38
. C. M. Clark,
Kaiser Wilhelm II
, pp. 259f.

  39
. Kohlrausch,
Monarch im Skandal
, pp. 45ff. On Wilhelm's interest in technology in general, see W. König,
Wilhelm II.
, esp. pp. 195–33 on the “traveling emperor.”

  40
. Daniel,
Hoftheater
, p. 369.

  41
. Rathenau,
Der Kaiser
, p. 34.

  42
. Another case in point would be Emperor Pedro II of Brazil (1825–91, r. 1840–89); for his biography, see Barman,
Citizen Emperor
.

  43
. Bagehot,
English Constitution
, pp. 61, 82ff.

  44
. Outstanding among the plethora of recent literature are D. Thompson,
Queen Victoria
and Homans,
Royal Representations
.

  45
. D. Thompson,
Queen Victoria
, pp. 144f.

  46
. Keene,
Emperor of Japan
, pp. 632–35.

  47
. Amanat,
Pivot
, p. 431.

  48
. According to the biographer of his nephew and successor: Georgeon,
Abdulhamid II
, p. 33.

  49
. Fujitani,
Splendid Monarchy
, p. 49.

  50
. Ibid., p. 229: one of the best books of any kind on monarchy in the nineteenth century.

  51
. Deringil,
Well-protected Domains
, p. 18.

  52
. This was the view of the young shah of Persia: see Amanat,
Pivot
, p. 352.

  53
. Paulmann,
Pomp und Politik
, p. 325; there is an impressive account of the visit on pp. 301–31.

  54
. On the debate see Kirsch,
Monarch
, pp. 210ff. There is an original discussion in Rosanvallon,
La démocratie inachevée
, pp. 199ff., which sees Louis Napoléon as a theorist of “Caesarism.”

  55
. R. Price,
French Second Empire
, p. 95; on the permanent
fête imperiale
see Baguley,
Napoleon III
.

  56
. R. Price,
French Second Empire
, p. 211.

  57
. Beller,
Franz Joseph
, p. 52.

  58
. Price,
People
, pp. 67–120, on the main currents in the opposition.

  59
. Here I am following Rosanvallon,
La démocratie inachevée
, pp. 199ff., esp. 237f.

  60
. Toledano,
State and Society
, pp. 50f.

  61
. Bernier,
The World in 1800
, pp. 76, 78.

  62
. Ibid., p. 150.

  63
. Fujitani,
Splendid Monarchy
, pp. 182–85.

  64
. There is a good and historically well founded discussion of the methodological problems in C. Tilly,
Democracy
, pp. 59–66.

  65
. Caramani,
Elections in Western Europe
, p. 53, Tab. 2.3.; Fenske,
Verfassungsstaat
, p. 516.

  66
. Somewhat shortened from Raphael,
Recht und Ordnung
, p. 28.

  67
. Rosanvallon,
L'État en France
, p. 99.

  68
. Fehrenbacher,
Slavery
.

  69
. National conceptions of political participation varied greatly, however. See the magisterial work Fahrmeir,
Citizenship,
esp. chs. 2–4.

  70
. Ikegami,
Citizenship
—with an emphasis on the role of opposition and protest movements.

  71
. Thorough recent research has dated the rise of a “Habermasian” public sphere to an earlier period—to the 1640s in the case of England (see McKeon,
Secret History
[2005], pp. 56 and passim).

  72
. Habermas,
Structural Transformation
, pp. 159 ff.

  73
. H. Barker and Borrows,
Press
; Uribe-Uran,
Birth of a Public Sphere
.

  74
. A key work here is A. Milner,
Invention of Politics
.

  75
. Apart from numerous studies of particular cities, see (for the United States) M. P. Ryan,
Civic Wars
and (for China) Ranking,
Elite Activism
.

  76
. P. G. Price,
Acting in Public
, pp. 92f.

  77
. Ibid., p. 113. On the diversity of voices in (Southern) India, which it was impossible for the colonial regime to control, see Irschick's exemplary
Dialogue and History
.

  78
. See the chapter “Political Associations in the United States” (I.2.iv) in: Tocqueville,
Democracy
, pp. 219–27.

  79
. Finer,
History of Government
, vol. 3, pp. 1567ff.; the main constitutional texts have been consulted in Gosewinkel and Masing,
Verfassungen
.

  80
. See the list in Navarro García,
Historia de las Américas
, vol. 4, pp. 164–73.

  81
. On the revolutions around the turn of the century, see
chapter 10
, above.

  82
. See Fenske,
Verfassungsstaat
. There is a succinct account in W. Reinhard,
Staatsgewalt
, pp. 410–26; Kirsch and Schiera,
Verfassungswandel
gives a general European overview at the highpoint of the interest in constitutional history.

  83
. Fenske,
Verfassungsstaat
, pp. 525f. Curiously, though, Fenske does not include Britain among the demopcracies, on the grounds that its political class was still marked to an unusual degree by the aristocracy.

  84
. J. Fisch,
Geschichte Südafrikas
, pp. 203f.

  85
. Hoppen,
Mid-Victorian Generation
, p. 253.

  86
. Caramani,
Elections in Western Europe
, p. 60.

  87
. Ibid., p. 65.

  88
. Ibid., p. 952; Searle,
A New England?
, p. 133.

  89
. Rosanvallon,
La démocracie inachevée
, pp. 299–302.

  90
. A key reference here is Rosanvallon,
Le sacre du citoyen
.

  91
. The story of this is related in Keyssar,
Right to Vote
, pp. 105ff.

  92
. On the latter see Mark Elvin, “The Gentry Democracy in Chinese Shanghai, 1905–1914,” in idem,
Another History
, pp. 140–65.

  93
. The standard account is Wilentz,
Rise of American Democracy
, chs. 9–14; see also D. W. Howe,
What Hath God Wrought
.

  94
. Fehrenbacher,
Slaveholding Republic
, pp. 24f., 76f., 236f.

  95
. Wahrman,
Imagining the Middle Class
, chs. 9–11.

  96
. Dates from Bock,
Women
, p. 143.

  97
. On the history of female suffrage, see ibid., ch. 4.

  98
. T. C. Smith,
Agrarian Origins
, p. 197.

  99
. M. W. Steele, “From Custom to Right: The Politicization of the Village in Early Meiji Japan,” in: Kornicki,
Meiji Japan
, vol. 2, pp. 11–27, here 24f.

100
. Mason,
Japan's First General Election
, p. 197.

101
. See, e.g., Welskopp,
Banner der Brüderlichkeit
.

102
. On early socialism and anarchism, see Stedman Jones and Claeys (eds.),
Cambridge History of Nineteenth-Century Political Thought
, chs. 14, 16.

103
. Still worth discussing as a diagnosis of the times is Sombart,
Why Is There No Socialism in the United States?
(first published in German in 1906).

104
. See also the four “figures” of the state in Rosanvallon,
L'État en France
, p. 14.

105
. Rodgers,
Contested Truths
, pp. 146, 169.

106
. Of the various interpretations of this path, see, for example, P. Anderson,
Lineages
, which also includes the Ottoman Empire, and Ertman,
Birth of the Leviathan
.