The Transformation of the World (213 page)

  17
. Zamoyski,
Rites of Peace
is rich on descriptive detail concerning the Congress.

  18
. Schroeder,
International System
, pp. 12–14.

  19
. James Monroe, Message to Congress, December 2, 1823, quoted from D. B. Davis and Mintz,
Boisterous Sea
, p. 350.

  20
. Heinhard Steiger, “Peace Treaties from Paris to Versailles,” in: Lesaffer,
Peace Treaties
, pp. 59–99, at 66f.

  21
. See the case studies in Dülffer et al.,
Vermiedene Kriege
.

  22
. Schieder,
Staatensystem
.

  23
. As Baumgart still argued in
Europäisches Konzert
.

  24
. Xiang Lanxin,
Origins of the Boxer War
.

  25
. Birmingham,
Portugal
, pp. 133, 135.

  26
. D.A.G. Waddell, “International Politics and Latin American Independence,” in: Bethell,
Cambridge History of Latin America
, vol. 3, pp. 197–228, at 99, 216–18; Alan Knight, “Britain and Latin America,” in: Louis,
Oxford History of the British Empire
, vol. 3, pp. 122–45; Cain and Hopkins,
British Imperialism
, pp. 243–74.

  27
. D. Gregory,
Brute New World
.

  28
. Sondhaus,
Naval Warfare
, p. 15.

  29
. Landes,
Wealth and Poverty
, p. 331.

  30
. Kraay and Whigham:
I Die with My Country
, p. 1. German data from Wehler,
Gesellschaftsgeschichte
, vol. 4, p. 944.

  31
. Hans Vogel, “Argentinien, Uruguay, Paraguay, 1830/1852–1904/1910,” in: Bernecker et al.,
Handbuch
, vol. 2, pp. 694–98.

  32
. Collier and Sater,
Chile
, p. 139; Klarén,
Peru
, pp. 183–91; Riekenberg,
Ethnische Kriege
, pp. 101–9.

  33
. H.-J. König,
Geschichte Lateinamerikas
, p. 392.

  34
. LaFeber,
American Age
, p. 110.

  35
. Ibid., p. 164.

  36
. J. Major,
Prize Possession
, pp. 34ff., 78ff. (figures from p. 83).

  37
. LaFeber,
American Age
, p. 234; the other major history of US foreign relations is Herring,
From Colony to Superpower
.

  38
. Topik,
Trade
, p. 209.

  39
. Fisher,
Indirect Rule in India
, pp. 255–57.

  40
. The standard regional history is Andaya and Andaya,
Malaysia
.

  41
. Lieberman,
Strange Parallels
, vol. 1, p. 302.

  42
. See
chapter 1
of M. B. Jansen,
China in the Tokugawa World
, a most important work for the international history of the early modern period.

  43
. Text in Lu,
Japan
, vol. 2, pp. 288–92.

  44
. Auslin,
Negotiating with Imperialism
, which lists all sixteen treaties of friendship and trade. The most important Western work on Japan's “limited sovereignty” is Hoare,
Japan's Treaty Ports
, esp. chs. 4 and 8.

  45
. The following draws on Osterhammel,
China
, chs. 9–10; Dabringhaus,
Geschichte Chinas
, pp. 56–59, 145–57; and, of the older literature, especially Kim,
Last Phase
. Westad,
Restless Empire
, is the most up-to-date long-term survey; Suzuki,
Civilization and Empire
, is a well-informed comparative interpretation in the light of “English School” international relations theory.

  46
. S.C.M. Paine,
Sino-Japanese War
.

  47
. Hamashita Takeshi, “Tribute and Treaties: Maritime Asia and Treaty Port Networks in the Era of Negotiations, 1800–1900,” in: Arrighi et al.,
Resurgence
, pp. 17–50, and Hamashita's other pathbreaking essays:
China, East Asia and the Global Economy
.

  48
. Schmid,
Korea
, pp. 56f.

  49
. Klaus Hildebrand, “Eine neue Ära der Weltgeschichte.” Der historische Ort des Russisch-Japanischen Krieges,” in: Kreiner,
Der Russisch-Japanische Krieg
, pp. 27–51, at 43.

  50
. We have to skip the precolonial military history of these continents. See, e.g., the major study R. Reid,
War in Pre-colonial Eastern Africa
.

  51
. Howard,
War in European History
, pp. 100f.

  52
. Connelly,
Wars of the French Revolution
, p. 115.

  53
. Wawro,
Warfare
, p. 33.

  54
. Pröve,
Militär
, p. 4.

  55
. Dieter Storz, “Modernes Infanteriegewehr und taktische Reform in Deutschland in der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts,” in Epkenhans and Groß,
Militär
, pp. 209–30, at 217.

  56
. Agoston,
Guns for the Sultan
, mostly on the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. On the nineteenth century see Ralston,
Importing the European Army
, pp. 43–78, and especially Grant,
Rulers
.

  57
. Jonas,
Battle of Adwa
; Pankhurst,
Ethiopians
, pp. 188–93.

  58
. Wawro,
Warfare
, p. 127.

  59
. On the international impact of the Russo-Japanese War, see Aydin,
Politics of Anti-Westernism
, pp. 71–92; Kowner,
Russo-Japanese War
.

  60
. S.C.M. Paine,
Sino-Japanese War
, p. 182; Sondhaus,
Naval Warfare
, pp. 133f., 152.

  61
. See the considerations in Dierk Walter, “Warum Kolonialkrieg?” in: Klein and Schumacher,
Kolonialkriege
, pp. 14–43, esp. 17–26, and the case studies in ibid., as well as in Moor and Wesseling,
Imperialism and War
. Important here is Wesseling,
Imperialism and Colonialism
, esp. the first essay: “Colonial Wars and Armed Peace, 1871–1914—A Reconnaissance,” pp. 12–26.

  62
. Belich,
New Zealand Wars
, pp. 323f.

  63
. Tone,
War and Genocide
, p. 193 (with a portrait of Weyler on pp.153–77); cf. Everdell,
The First Moderns
, pp. 116–26; Gott,
Cuba
, pp. 93–97.

  64
. Nasson,
South African War
, pp. 220–24.

  65
. S. C. Miller,
“Benevolent Assimilation”
, pp. 164, 208–10.

  66
. Laband,
Kingdom in Crisis
, p. 14.

  67
. M. Lieven,
Butchering
, p. 616.

  68
. Spiers,
Late Victorian Army
, p. 335, and see the good analysis of this kind of warfare in ibid., 272–300. Wesseling puts the number of colonial wars between 1871 and 1914 at 23 for the British, 40 for the French, and 32 for the Dutch (
Imperialism and Colonialism
[1997], pp. 13f.). See also C. Marx,
Geschichte Afrikas
, pp. 133f.

  69
. Vandervort,
Wars of Imperial Conquest
, pp. 174–77.

  70
. Ibid., p. 49.

  71
. Lee Ki-baik,
Korea
, p. 212.

  72
. Esdaile,
Fighting Napoleon
, p. 176, and for a wider range of references: Broers,
Napoleon's Other War
.

  73
. Hobsbawm,
Primitive Rebels
, esp. ch. 2.

  74
. Teng Ssu-yü,
Nien Army
.

  75
. Showalter,
Wars of German Unification
, pp. 315–27.

  76
. Blanning,
French Revolutionary Wars
, p. 101; and, more dramatically, Bell,
First Total War
.

  77
. See Forrest,
Napoleon's Men
.

  78
. Broers,
Europe
, pp. 70–77; and for another view Connelly,
Wars of the French Revolution
, p. 117; a good overall chronicle is Esdaile,
Napoleon's Wars
; on Napoleon's disastrous invasion of Russia see the authoritative study D. Lieven,
Russia against Napoleon
.

  79
. Stig Förster and Jörg Nagler, “Introduction,” in idem,
On the Road
, pp. 1–25, at 6f.

  80
. Wawro,
Warfare
, pp. 19. 89, 155f.; idem,
Franco-Prussian War
, pp. 75, 84; Nasson,
South African War
, p. 75; Elleman,
Modern Chinese Warfare
, p. 41.

  81
. McPherson,
Battle Cry
, p. 664; Wawro,
Warfare
, p. 155; Urlanis,
Bilanz
, p. 99, 122—still the best source for data on military casualties in modern Europe (new Russian edition in 1994).

  82
. See the overview in J. W. Steinberg et al.,
Russo-Japanese War
.

  83
. Moorehead,
Dunant's Dream
, pp. 1–7.

  84
. Steinbach,
Abgrund Metz
, p. 45.

  85
. Langewiesche,
Kriegsgewalt
, p. 27.

  86
. E. Grove,
Royal Navy
, pp. 39–68.

  87
. Deng Gang,
Maritime Sector
, p. 195 (Tab. 4.3).

  88
. See the evidence in M. C. Wright,
Last Stand
, p. 220.

  89
. Sondhaus,
Naval Warfare
, pp. 3, 52, 73, 103, 133f., 150–52.

  90
. M. B. Jansen,
Modern Japan
, p. 277.

  91
. Simon Ville, “Shipping Industry Technologies,” in: Jeremy,
International Technology Transfer
, pp. 74–94, at 83 (tab. 5.2). Essential on the naval program is D. C. Evans and Peattie,
Kaigun
, pp. 1–31.

  92
. Josef Kreiner, “Der Ort des Russisch-Japanischen Krieges in der japanischen Geschich te,” in: idem,
Der Russisch-Japanische Krieg
, pp. 53–76, at 57.

  93
. D. C. Evans and Peattie,
Kaigun
, p. 124.

  94
. The best biography of one of the most influential nineteenth-century politicians never to have held public office is Edsall,
Richard Cobden
.

  95
. Lee Ki-baik,
Korea
, pp. 268f.; W. G. Beasley, “The Foreign Threat and the Opening of the Ports,” in: J. W. Hall,
Cambridge History of Japan
, vol. 5, pp. 259–307, at 307.

  96
. See the masterful summary in Gollwitzer,
Geschichte des weltpolitischen Denkens
, vol. 2, pp. 23–82; cf. the depiction of the prewar mood in Joll,
Origins
, ch. 8; Cassels,
Ideology
, chs. 3–6. The most comprehensive association of these themes may be found in the work of the little known Swedish geopolitican Rudolf Kjellen (1864–1922).

  97
. D. P. Crook,
Darwinism
, p. 63.

  98
. Gollwitzer,
Die gelbe Gefahr
.

  99
. Gluck,
Japan's Modern Myths
, p. 206.

100
. Chang Hao, “Intellectual Change and the Reform Movement, 1890–8,” in: Fairbank and Twitchett,
Cambridge History of China
, vol. 11, pp. 274–338, at 296–98; cf. Pusey,
China and Charles Darwin
, pp. 236–316 (which is critical of Liang).

101
. A. Black,
Islamic Political Thought
, p. 304.

102
. For a survey, see Windler,
La diplomatie
, and the grand view of early modern “global” diplomacy in Bély,
L'art de la paix en Europe
, pp. 345–73.

103
. On the Macartney mission: Hevia,
Cherishing Men from Afar
.

104
. H. M. Scott,
Birth
, p. 278.

105
. Vandervort,
Wars of Imperial Conquest
, p. 85.

106
. H. M. Scott,
Birth
, pp. 275f.

107
. Gong,
Standard of “Civilization”
; Frey and Frey,
Diplomatic Immunity
, pp. 384–421; Jörg Fisch, “Internationalizing Civilization by Dissolving International Society: The Status of Non-European Territories in Nineteenth-Century International Law,” in: M. H. Geyer and Paulmann,
Mechanics
, pp. 235–57; for Japan: Henning,
Outposts of Civiliza
tion.

108
. Farah,
Politics of Interventionism
, is rich in details.

109
. R. Owen,
Middle East
, pp. 122–35; Osterhammel,
China
, pp. 211–18. On financial imperialism, there is still nothing superior to Mommsen,
Der europäische Imperialismus
, pp. 85–148. Exemplary on Germany is B. Barth,
Die deutsche Hochfinanz
.

110
. Excellent on this is Lipson,
Standing Guard
, pp. 37–57.

111
. M. S. Anderson,
Rise of Modern Diplomacy
, pp. 103–11; Girault,
Diplomatie européenne
, pp. 13–19.

112
. Headrick,
Invisible Weapon
, p. 17.

113
. For greater detail see M. King,
Penguin History of New Zealand
, pp. 156–67; Belich,
Making Peoples
, pp. 193–97.

114
. Kinji Akashi, “Japanese ‘Acceptance' of the European Law of Nations: A Brief History of International Law in Japan, c. 1853–1900,” in: Stolleis and Yanagihara,
Perspectives
, pp. 1–21, at 9.

115
. Paulmann,
Pomp und Politik
, pp. 295ff.

116
. Keene,
Emperor of Japan
, p. 632.