The Transformation of the World (210 page)

135
. Kappeler,
Russian Empire
, p. 159.

136
. Barrett,
Edge of Empire
; O'Rourke,
Cossacks
, chs. 2–3; Alfred J. Rieber, “The Comparative Ecology of Complex Frontiers,” in: Miller and Rieber,
Imperial Rule
, pp. 177–207, at 188f.

137
. Kappeler,
Russian Empire
, p. 193.

138
. Forsyth,
Peoples of Siberia
, p. 130; Rossabi,
China and Inner Asia
, pp. 167–79; Jersild,
Orientalism
, p. 36.

139
. The standard account is now J. F. Richards,
Unending Frontier
, pp. 463–546.

140
. Forsyth,
Peoples of Siberia
, pp. 123, 190f.

141
. Slezkine,
Arctic Mirrors
, pp. 97–99.

142
. Forsyth,
Peoples of Siberia
, pp. 159f., 163, 177–79, 181, 216–18.

143
. On the following, see Kappeler,
Russian Empire
, pp. 185–90.

144
. Virginia Martin,
Law and Custom
, pp. 34ff. (also pp. 17–24 for a precise description of Kazakh nomadism and its political organization).

145
. Sunderland,
Taming the Wild Field
, p. 223.

146
. Cf. the case study of the Molochna River plains northeast of the Crimea: Staples,
Cross-Cultural Encounters
.

147
. On the civilizing mission see
chapter 17
, below.

148
. Bassin,
Turner
.

149
. Jersild,
Orientalism
, pp. 56, 87, 97.

150
. Breyfogel,
Heretics
, p. 2.

151
. For Russia: Layton,
Russian Literature
; and on the perception of Siberians: Slezkine,
Arctic Mirrors
, pp. 113–29.

152
. Forsyth,
Peoples of Siberia
, pp. 118, 120, 164–66, 176. For an exhaustive account of the Buryats: Schorkowitz,
Staat und Nationalitäten
.

153
. Excellent on this is Blackbourn,
Conquest of Nature
, pp. 280ff.

154
. J. C. Scott,
Seeing Like a State
, pp. 181ff.

155
. The image of congealment is drawn from the important work Weaver,
Great Land Rush
: “frontiers congealed into settler societies” (p. 69).

156
. The following partly follows Osterhammel,
Colonialism
, pp. 4–10.

157
. See the theoretical definition in McCusker and Menard,
Economy of British America
, p. 21.

158
. See Marks,
Road to Power
, pp. 196ff.

159
. See Mosley,
Settler Economies
, pp. 5–8, 237 (note 1).

160
. R. W. Fogel,
Without Consent or Contract
, pp. 30f.

161
. See Mark Thomas, “Frontier Societies and the Diffusion of Growth,” in James and Thomas,
Capitalism in Context
, pp. 29–49, at 31.

162
. Adelman,
Frontier Development
, p. 1.

163
. See Stefan Kaufmann, “Der Siedler,” in Horn et al.,
Grenzverletzer
, pp. 176–201, esp. 180–86.

164
. There are numerous historical case studies from every continent. Especially systematic is Janssen,
Übertragung von Rechtsvorstellungen
, pp. 86–134. On Africa see, e.g., various works by Martin Chanock.

165
. Fundamental on colonial land policy is Weaver,
Great Land Rush
, pp. 216ff.

166
. Dunlap,
Nature and the English Diaspora
, p. 19.

167
. Crosby,
Ecological Imperialism
, pp. 217–69; M. King,
Penguin History of New Zealand
, pp. 196f.

168
. Tyrrell,
Peripheral Visions
, pp. 280f.

169
. Ibid., pp. 286f. See also idem,
True Gardens
, esp. chs. 2–4.

170
. Nor are there are any synopses of the literature comparable to J. F. Richards,
Unending Frontier
or J. R. McNeill,
Something New Under the Sun
; for the time being Krech et al,
Encyclopedia
remains the most important source of information.

171
. Naquin and Rawski,
Chinese Society
, pp. 130–33.

172
. This shift is briefly discussed in Coates,
Nature
, pp. 129–34. Interest in, and fear of, the mountains persisted during and after the period of Alpine Romanticism.

173
. J. R. McNeill,
Something New under the Sun
, p. 229.

174
. Chew,
Ecological Degradation
, p. 133; percentages from John F. Richards, “Land Transformation,” in B. L. Turner et al.,
The Earth
, pp. 163–78, at 173 (Tab. 10–2).

175
. J. R. McNeill,
Something New Under the Sun
, p. 232; Delort and Walter,
Histoire de l'environnement européen
, p. 267.

176
. The standard work on the question (in which many more histories are narrated) is M. Williams,
Deforesting the Earth
.

177
. Elvin,
Elephants
, p. 85.

178
. Guha,
Environment and Ethnicity
, pp. 62ff.

179
. Elvin,
Elephants
, p. 470. This also contains much material on regional differences in the Chinese cultural attitude to wood, trees, and forest.

180
. Totman,
Early Modern Japan
, pp. 226f., 268f.

181
. A. Reid,
Humans and Forests
, p. 102.

182
. The following is based on Boomgaard,
Forest Management
.

183
. Radkau,
Nature and Power
, p. 152.

184
. See the standard accounts in R. H. Grove,
Green Imperialism
, esp. chs. 6–8; Rangarajan,
Fencing the Forest
; Beinart and Hughes,
Environment and Empire
.

185
. See the synthesis of copious research in M. Williams,
Deforesting the Earth
, pp. 354–69.

186
. An example from the Himalayas: Singh
Natural Premises
, pp. 147f., 153.

187
. Guha,
Environment and Ethnicity
, p. 167.

188
. For the United States see Jacoby,
Crimes
; for France: Whited,
Forests
, esp. ch. 3.

189
. See the global survey in R. H. Grove,
Ecology
, pp. 179–223.

190
. M. Williams,
Deforesting the Earth
, pp. 368f.

191
. Ibid., pp. 371–79; cf. the extensive account in Dean,
Broadax
, esp. ch. 9.

192
. Simmons,
Environmental History
, p. 153.

193
. John F. Richards, “Land Transformation,” in: B. L. Turner et al.,
The Earth
, pp. 163–78, at 169.

194
. M. Williams,
Americans and Their Forests
, pp. 332f.

195
. M. Williams,
Deforesting the Earth
, p. 360.

196
. J.L.A. Webb,
Desert Frontier
, pp. 5, 11, 15f., 22.

197
. Few things are as elusive as this world for European historians of the twenty-first century. See Brody,
Other Side of Eden
.

198
. Mumford,
The City
, pp. 269–73.

199
. Boomgaard,
Frontiers of Fear
, pp. 56, 111.

200
. Ibid., pp. 121, 125, 127.

201
. Mackenzie,
Empire of Nature
, p. 182.

202
. Rothfels,
Savages and Beasts
, pp. 44–80, esp. 51f., 57f., 76–80.

203
. Planhol,
Le paysage animal
, p. 689.

204
. Ibid., pp. 70f.

205
. Beinart and Coates,
Environment and History
, pp. 20–27.

206
. On the history of whaling until around 1800, see J. F. Richards,
Unending Frontier
, pp. 574–607.

207
. Ray Hilborn, “Marine Biota,” in B. L. Turner et al.,
The Earth
, pp. 371–85, at: 377 (Fig. 21.7).

208
. Mawer,
Ahab's Trade
, pp. 23, 179, 213.

209
. Ellis,
Men and Whales
, pp. 101–13.

210
. Ibid., p. 166; Bockstoce,
Whales, Ice, and Men
, pp. 24, 159.

211
. Bockstoce,
Whales, Ice, and Men
, p. 208.

212
. Pasquier,
Les baleiniers français
, pp. 28f., 32f., 194.

213
. Mawer,
Ahab's Trade
, pp. 319–21.

214
. Bockstoce,
Whales, Ice, and Men
, p. 324.

215
. Ellis,
Men and Whales
, p. 166.

216
. Kalland and Moeran,
Japanese Whaling
, p. 74.

217
. President Millard Fillmore to the Emperor of Japan, 1852/11/13, in: Beasley,
Select Documents
, pp. 99–101 (p. 100 on whaling).

218
. Kalland and Moeran,
Japanese Whaling
, p. 78.

219
. Nickerson and Chase,
Loss of the Ship “Essex”
.

220
. Blackbourn,
Conquest of Nature
, pp. 71–111.

221
.
Faust. Der Tragödie zweiter Teil
, 11091–11094. See the commentary in Johann Wolfgang von Goethe,
Sämtliche Werke, Briefe, Tagebücher und Gespräche
, vol. 7/2, ed. Albrecht Schöne, Frankfurt am Main 1994, pp. 716f. English translation:
http://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/German/Fausthome.htm
.

222
. J. R. McNeill,
Something New under the Sun
, pp. 188f.

223
. J. de Vries and Woude,
First Modern Economy
, pp. 28f., 31.

224
. Ven et al.,
Leefbar laagland
, pp. 152f.

225
. Woud,
Het lege land
, pp. 83f.

226
. Jeurgens,
De Haarlemmermeer
, pp. 97, 99, 167.

227
. Ven et al.,
Leefbar laagland
1993, p. 192.

228
. The classical text on this is Nash,
Wilderness and the American Mind
.

CHAPTER VIII: Imperial Systems and Nation-States

    1
. For this, see Burbank and Cooper,
Empires in World History
.

    2
. Darwin,
After Tamerlane
, p. 254.

    3
. In this respect, my main inspiration is a classic work of political science: Finer,
History of Government
.

    4
. See the world-historical survey in Hansen's monumental
City-State Cultures
.

    5
. With the exception of the Russian war in the Caucasus, which followed old imperial lines of conflict.

    6
. Blanning,
French Revolutionary Wars
, pp. 100f. For an English translation of the decree, see F. M. Anderson (ed.),
The Constitutions and Other Select Documents Illustrative of the History of France
, 1789–1907, 2nd ed., Minneapolis 1908, pp. 184–85.

    7
. Duroselle,
Tout empire périra
, pp. 67f.

    8
. See the fine sketch in Girault,
Diplomatie européenne
, pp. 13–19.

    9
. D. Geyer,
Der russische Imperialismus
, pp. 47ff.

  10
. Joseph Smith,
Spanish-American War
, pp. 32f., 198.

  11
. On the changes in military communications, see Kaufmann,
Kommunikationstechnik
; and in warfare more generally, Hew Strachan, “Military Modernization, 1789–1918,” in Blanning,
Oxford Illustrated History
, pp. 69–93.

  12
. Figures from P. M. Kennedy,
Great Powers
, p. 203 (Tab.19).

  13
. See the brilliant sketch in Paul W. Schroeder, “International Politics, Peace, and War, 1815–1914,” in Blanning,
Nineteenth Century
, pp. 158–209; and compare this with Doering-Manteuffel,
Internationale Geschichte
, pp. 94–105. Schroeder and Doering-Manteuffel put forward strikingly distinctive theses. The best “neutral” textbook is Rich,
Great Power Diplomacy
; very succint is Bridge and Bullen,
Great Powers
; and excellent for the period until 1815 is Scott,
Birth
.

  14
. For a detailed discussion of the movements up and down, see Duchhardt,
Balance of Power
, pp. 95–234.

  15
. M. S. Anderson,
Eastern Question
, still valuable.

  16
. Rusconi,
Cavour e Bismarck
; Gall,
Bismarck
.

  17
. On German foreign policy in Europe, see Mommsen,
Großmachtstellung
, and Hildebrand,
Das vergangene Reich
.

  18
. Mommsen,
Großmachtstellung
, p. 107.

  19
. Girault,
Diplomatie européenne
, pp. 151–69.

  20
. For a long-term perspective: Gillard,
Struggle for Asia
. After 1907, however, the tensions between Russia and Britain continued in different forms.

  21
. See Mulligan,
Origins
, as a judicious synthesis of a huge literature; still important: Joll,
Origins
.

  22
. The significance of developments in East Asia between roughly 1895 and 1907 for the international system cannot be overestimated. See Nish,
Origins
.

  23
. What that meant for world politics is superbly analyzed in Marshall,
Remaking the British Atlantic
.