The Transformation of the World (208 page)

216
. Kellett,
Impact of Railways
, p. 290.

217
. Dennis,
English Industrial Cities
, pp. 128f.; Brower,
Russian City
, p. 53, and see the remarkable sociology of urban immigration in ibid., pp. 85ff.

218
. Kellett,
Impact of Railways
, p. 18.

219
. Mak,
Amsterdam
, pp. 206–10.

220
. Sutcliffe,
Paris
, pp. 97f.

221
. Brower,
Russian City
, p. 52—remarks that railroad engineers and station architects took decisions about the shape of the city out of the hands of the authorities.

222
. See the abundant material in Parissien,
Station to Station
.

223
. Pinol,
Le monde des villes
, pp. 73ff.

224
. Kreiser,
Istanbul
, p. 53; Kuban,
Istanbul
, p. 369.

225
. Frédéric,
La vie quotidienne au Japon
, p. 336.

226
. Vance,
Continuing City
, p. 366.

227
. Merchant,
Columbia Guide
, p. 109.

228
. McShane and Tarr,
The Horse in the City
, p. 124f.

229
. In his essay on noise (“Über Lärm and Geräusch”), published in 1851.

230
. K. T. Jackson,
Crabgrass Frontier
, p. 41.

231
. Çelik,
Remaking of Istanbul
, pp. 90–95, 102; on dog life in Istanbul, see Boyar and Fleet,
Ottoman Istanbul
, pp. 273–75.

232
. Dennis,
English Industrial Cities
, p. 125.

233
. John Armstrong, “From Shillibeer to Buchanan: Transport and the Urban Environment,” in: P. Clark,
Cambridge Urban History
, vol. 3, pp. 229–57, at 237.

234
. Data from Roche,
Le cheval moteur
, p. 65.

235
. Ball and Sunderland,
Economic History of London
, p. 229.

236
. Bouchet,
Le cheval à Paris
, pp. 40, 45, 83f., 123, 170–76, 215, 254–56—a richly detailed work. See also the social and organizational study: Papayanis,
Coachmen
; and now a wealth of material and insight in Roche,
Le cheval moteur
, pp. 57–120, the first volume of an intended trilogy on the horse in modern European civilization (vol. 2: 2011).

237
. Dyos and Aldcroft,
British Transport
, pp. 74f.; Ball and Sunderland,
Economic History of London
, pp. 204f.; Ransom,
Archaeology of the Transport Revolution
, pp. 95–116; Grossman,
Charles Dickens's Networks
, ch. 1.

238
. Bartlett,
New Country
, pp. 293, 298f.

239
. Kassir,
Beirut
, pp. 115–21.

240
. Bouchet,
Le cheval à Paris
, p. 214.

241
. The pedicab, a cross between rickshaw and bicycle, was invented in the 1940s.

242
. Frédéric,
La vie quotidienne au Japon
, p. 349.

243
. Bairoch
, Cities and Economic Development
, p. 314; Merki,
Siegeszug des Automobils
, pp. 39–40 (also Tab. 1), 88f., 95; Hugill,
World Trade
, pp. 217–20.

244
. Wolmar,
Subterranean Railway
, chs. 1–7; on the Paris Metro see Pike,
Subterranean Cities
, pp. 47–68.

245
. Gruzinski,
Mexico
, pp. 321, 323.

246
. Bradley,
Muzhik and Muscovite
, pp. 55, 59.

247
. K. T. Jackson,
Crabgrass Frontier
, pp. 13f.; Vance,
Continuing City
, p. 369. The literature on suburbanization is especially abundant in the fields of urban sociology and geography.

248
. Fogelson,
Fragmented Metropolis
, p. 2.

249
. Girouard,
Cities and People
, pp. 275–79, 282 (Taine); Girouard,
English Town
, p. 270. The great account of
villa suburbia
is Olsen,
City
, pp. 158–77.

250
. Escher and Wirth,
Medina von Fes
, p. 19.

251
. H. J. Dyos and David A. Reeder, “Slums and Suburbs,” in: Dyos and Wolff,
Victorian City
, pp. 359–86. Not all slums were products of industrialization; the notorious ones in Dublin resulted from economic decline. For a broad survey of housing conditions in Europe see Lenger,
European Cities
, pp. 97–112.

252
. Pooley,
Housing Strategies
, pp. 6, 328–32.

253
. See the discussion with reference to Moscow in Brower,
Russian City
, p. 79.

254
. D. Ward,
Poverty
, pp. 13, 15, 52.

255
. Yelling,
Slums
, pp. 153f. On the “discovery” of the English slums, see also Koven,
Slumming
.

256
. On the urban abodes of the nobility, see Olsen,
City
, pp. 114–31; Lichtenberger,
Stadt
, pp. 208–16.

257
. Plunz,
Housing in New York City
, pp. 60–66, 78–80.

258
. See the description in Vigier,
Paris
, p. 314. Although it had some model housing for workers, the Ruhr was generally no exception to the grim picture in Europe. See Reulecke,
Urbanisierung in Deutschland
, p. 46, 98.

259
. Frost,
New Urban Frontier
, pp. 21f., 34f., 92f., 100, 128f.; cf. Davison,
Marvellous Melbourne
, pp. 137ff.

260
. Inwood,
London
, p. 372.

261
. This aspect is explored in Schivelbusch,
Disenchanted Night
; Schlör,
Nights in the Big City
; P. C. Baldwin,
In the Watches of the Night
.

262
. Pounds,
Hearth
, p. 388.

263
. Frédéric,
La vie quotidienne au Japon
, pp. 341–44.

264
. Daniel,
Hoftheater
, p. 370.

265
. Schlör,
Nights in the Big City
, p. 68; P. C. Baldwin,
In the Watches of the Night
. pp. 157–61, on the introduction of electric lighting.

266
. Two masters of such description are the sociologist Richard Sennett and the historian Karl Schlögel.

267
. Oldenburg,
Colonial Lucknow
, pp. 24, 36f., 96ff.

268
. Ruble,
Second Metropolis
, pp. 221f.; Frédéric,
La vie quotidienne au Japon
, p. 340.

269
. C. J. Baker and Phongpaichit,
History of Thailand
, p. 72.

270
. Conner,
Oriental Architecture
, pp. 131–53.

271
. Sweetman,
Oriental Obsession
, pp. 218ff.

272
. A good overview: MacKenzie,
Orientalism
, pp. 71–104.

273
. See T. Mitchell, “World as Exhibition.”

274
. Girouard,
Cities and People
, pp. 291–93; Girouard,
English Town
, pp. 229f.

275
. The history is recounted in detail in: Solé,
Le grand voyage de l'obélisque
.

276
. Girouard,
Cities and People
, pp. 301–3.

277
. Kassir,
Beirut
, p. 114.

278
. See, for Europe: Lenger,
European Cities
, pp. 165–72.

279
. Briggs,
Victorian Cities
, p. 115; C. Zimmermann,
Metropolen
, p. 66.

280
. Konvitz,
Urban Millennium
, pp. 132f.

281
. For a fine account of Urbana, IL, in 1869: Monkkonen,
America Becomes Urban
, p. 133.

282
. Reps,
Making of Urban America
, p. 380; also pp. 349ff.

283
. Ruble,
Second Metropolis
, p. 216.

284
. Bessière,
Madrid
, pp. 135f.

285
. H. M. Mayer and Wade,
Chicago
, pp. 117f., 124.

286
. Brower,
Russian City
, p. 14.

287
. Gruzinski,
Mexico
, pp. 57, 59, 339f.

288
. C. Zimmermann,
Metropolen
, p. 162: “the largest urban redevelopment in nineteenth-century Europe.”

289
. Bernand,
Buenos Aires
, pp. 209f., 213. A final imitation of England, in 1878, was the building of a prison in the style of a medieval fortress: ibid., p. 191.

290
. Horel,
Budapest
, p. 183.

291
. Ibid., pp. 93, 155, 174.

292
. P. Hall,
Cities in Civilization
, pp. 707–45 (quotation p. 737): the best introduction to Paris under Haussmann. See also Sutcliffe,
Planned City
, pp. 132–34, and the detailed studies D. P. Jordan,
Transforming Paris
, and Van Zanten,
Building Paris
.

293
. Sutcliffe,
Paris
, pp. 83–104, esp. 86–88.

294
. Sutcliffe,
Planned City
, pp. 9ff.

295
. There is an exemplary analysis in S. Fisch,
Stadtplanung
. On a striking parallel in Japan: Hanes,
City as Subject
, esp. pp. 210ff.

296
. Irving,
Indian Summer
; Volwahsen,
Imperial Delhi
; Ridley,
Edwin Lutyens
, esp. pp. 209ff.

297
. This moment in architectural history is extensively documented in H. M. Mayer and Wade,
Chicago
, pp. 124ff.

298
. Bessière,
Madrid
, p. 205.

299
. E. Jones,
Metropolis
, p. 76; Vance,
Continuing City
, pp. 374–76; Girouard,
Cities and People
, pp. 319–22.

300
. On the persistent identity of the European city, see the major contributions by H. Häußermann and H. Kaelble in
Leviathan
29 (2001).

301
. Frost,
New Urban Frontier
, p. 14.

302
. There are fine case studies in Esherick,
Remaking the Chinese City
.

303
. See Leeuwen,
Waqfs
, esp. pp. 206f. On other distinctive features, see the detailed research report in Haneda and Miura,
Islamic Urban Studies
.

CHAPTER VII: Frontiers

    1
. K. L. Klein,
Frontiers
, pp. 145f.

    2
. For a brief account of this evolution in American historiography, see Walsh,
American West
, pp. 1–18.

    3
. R. White,
Middle Ground
.

    4
. A major work integrating the family perspective is Hyde,
Empires, Nations, and Families
; see also T. Jordan,
Cowgirls
.

    5
. See
chapter 12
(pp. 432–50) in Bayly,
Birth of the Modern World
.

    6
. In F. J. Turner,
Frontier
, pp. 1–38.

    7
. Key texts are Waechter,
Erfindung
, esp. pp. 100–120; Jacobs,
On Turner's Trail
; Wrobel,
End of American Exceptionalism
.

    8
. An important author in this context, with many works to his name, is Richard Slotkin.

    9
. Billington,
Westward Expansion
, pp. 3–7.

  10
. W. P. Webb,
Great Frontier
, first published in 1952.

  11
. Hennessy,
Frontier in Latin American History
, pp. 22, 144, and Toennes's related
Die “Frontier”
. Another fine elaboration of this approach is Cronon,
Changes in the Land
.

  12
. W. H. McNeill,
Europe's Steppe Frontier
.

  13
. Important suggestions have been taken here from Howard Lamar and Leonard Thompson, “Comparative Frontier History,” in idem,
Frontier
, pp. 3–13, esp. 7f.; C. Marx,
Grenzfälle
; Walter Nugent, “Comparing Wests and Frontiers,” in: Milner et al.,
American West
, pp. 803–33; Hennessy,
Frontier in Latin American History
; Careless,
Frontier and Metropolis
, p. 40.

  14
. The viewpoint of “shared history” is impressively developed in E. West,
Contested Plains
: “The frontier never separated things. It brought things together” (p. 13). A vision of the “global frontier land” as an irredeemable no-man's-land is set forth in Bauman,
Society under Siege
, pp. 90–94.

  15
. Cf. the considerations in Maier,
Among Empires
, pp. 78–111, especially the typology of frontiers on pp. 99f. The most substantial contribution to the debate is now Belich,
Replenishing the Earth
, with its grand analogy between the westward advance in North America and British empire building.

  16
. Moreman,
Army in India
, pp. 24–31, and passim.

  17
. Mehra,
An “Agreed” Frontier
.

  18
. Quoted in Adelman and Aron,
From Borderlands to Borders
, p. 816. The term is used somewhat differently in Baud and Schendel,
Comparative History
, p. 216. A major review of the American debate is Hämäläinen and Truett,
On Borderlands
.

  19
. See the final version of his theory of imperialism: Ronald Robinson, “The Excentric Idea of Imperialism, with or without Empire,” in: Mommsen and Osterhammel,
Imperialism and After
, pp. 267–89, at 273–76.

  20
. Lattimore,
Inner Asian Frontiers
.