The Two Koreas: A Contemporary History (100 page)

My account of the Politburo meeting on November 10, 1988, including quotes, is from notes by Gorbachev aide Anatoly Chernyayev. Minister’s quote on the ROK as “most promising partner,” Eugene Bazhanov, “Soviet Policy Towards South Korea Under Gorbachev,”
Korea and Russia Toward the 21st Century
(Sejong Institute, 1992), 94n.

The Roots of Change
:
Soviet news reports and journalists’ quotes from Yassen N. Zassoursky, “The XXIV Olympic Games in Seoul and Their Effect on the Soviet Media and the Soviet Public,” in
Seoul Olympics and the Global Community
(Seoul Olympics Memorial Association, 1992). Pravda quote from Park Seh Jik,
The Seoul Olympics
(Bellew, 1991), 175. Muscovites survey, Park,
Seoul Olympics
, 175. The “Welcoming Soviets” quote is from Bazhanov, “Soviet Policy,” 96.

The North-South economic comparisons are from Kwang Eui Gak’s monumental study,
The Korean Economies
(Clarendon Press, 1993). Soviet aid figures are found on 204. The subsidized trade figures are from an excellent account by Nicholas Eberstadt, Marc Rubin, and Albina Tretyakova, “The Collapse of Soviet and Russian Trade with the DPRK, 1989–1993,”
Korean Journal of National Unification
4 (1995).The Soviet memorandum to the DPRK is quoted in Natalia Bazhanova, “North Korea and Seoul-Moscow Relations,” in
Korea and Russia Toward the 21st Century
, 332. For the ROK proposed loans, Kyungsoo Lho, “Seoul-Moscow Relations,”
Asian Survey
(December 1989): 1153.

Shevardnadze’s visit to Pyongyang, personal impressions of Pyongyang from Pavel Palazchenko,
My Years with Gorbachev and Shevardnadze
(Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997), 111. For Shevardnadze’s report, “The Main Results of Eduard Shevardnadze’s Visit to Japan, the Philippines, and North Korea,” memorandum of February 2, 1989,
SED Archives
. Shevardnadze’s “I am a communist” quote, Bazhanova, “North Korea and Seoul-Moscow Relations,” 332–333.

Gorbachev Meets Roh
:
The Gorbachev memoirs quote is from the German version,
Erinnerungen
(Siedler Verlag, 1995). Gorbachev on the process of change, Gorbachev interview, April 13, 1994. Roh on “smelling their intention,” Roh interview, July 22, 1993. Lifting of Soviet restrictions, Bazhanov, “Soviet Policy Towards South
Korea Under Gorbachev,” 97. ROK industrialists in Moscow, Kim Hak Joon, “South Korea–Soviet Union Normalization Revisited,” prepared for the Conference on Northeast Asia and Russia, Sigur Center for East Asian Studies, March 17–18, 1994, 11. “Inventing new reasons” quote, Georgi Ostroumov interview, April 12, 1994.

Chernyayev quote from Chernyayev interview, April 12, 1994. Gorbachev–Li Peng exchange, Bazhanov, “Soviet Policy Towards South Korea Under Gorbachev,” 92–93. Impact of Moscow trip on Kim Young Sam’s political fortunes, Yoon Sang Hyun, “South Koreas
Nordpolitik
with Special Reference to Its Relationship with China,” PhD diss. (George Washington University, 1994), 255. Tkachenko quote from Tkachenko interview, October 24, 1993. On the appeal to Germany, see Philip Zelikow and Condoleezza Rice,
Germany Unified and Europe Transformed
(Harvard University Press, 1995), 256ff.

Dobrynin quote and activities, Dobrynin interviews, June 22, 1993, and February 23, 1994. Roh Tae Woo on Soviet desperation, Roh interview, July 26, 1993. Gregg on “stake through the heart,”
Emb. cable
, “Roh Tae Woo on the Eve of Meetings with Soviet and U.S. Leaders,” June 1, 1990, Confidential (declassified 1995). Sensitivity about Soviet consulate, Kim Hak Joon, “South Korea–Soviet Union Normalization Reconsidered,”13. Gorbachev on “radical change,” Bazhanov, “Soviet Policy Towards South Korea Under Gorbachev,” 103. Kim Jong In quote, Kim interview, April 26, 1994.

Soviet meeting notes, “M. S. Gorbachev’s Conversation with Roh Tae Woo in San Francisco,” obtained by author from the Gorbachev archive, Moscow, in Russian. For Roh’s requests to Gorbachev, “M. S. Gorbachev’s Conversation.” See also
Emb. cable
, “MOFA Readout on Roh-Gorbachev Meeting,” June 12, 1990, Secret (declassified 1995). Pyongyang’s reaction, Bazhanova, “North Korea and Seoul-Moscow Relations,” 336. Dobrynin quote on photograph, Dobrynin interview, June 22, 1993. Roh on the road to Pyongyang, “Opening Remarks by President Roh,”
Yonhap Annual
(1990), 410.

The Shevardnadze Mission
:
My account of Shevardnadze’s September 1990 trip to Pyongyang comes from interviews with three members of the Soviet delegation who were present. Shevardnadze on the “most difficult, most unpleasant” mission from former Soviet diplomat, interview, July 7, 1993. Bessmertnykh quote, Bessmertnykh interview, April 14, 1994. Chernyayev quotes from Chernyayev interview, April 12, 1994.

Choi’s argument to Gorbachev, Choi interview, April 25, 1995. Shevardnadze on “our friends,” Sergei Tarasenko interview, April 10, 1994.
Rodong Sinmun
on Soviet perfidy, “Commentary Denounces USSR Diplomatic Ties,”
FBIS-EAS
, October 5, 1990, 8. Economic data from Nicholas Eberstadt et al., “The Collapse of Soviet and Russian Trade with the DPRK, 1989–93,”
Korean Journal of National Unification
4 (1995); Young Namkoong, “An Assessment of North Korean Economic Capability,” in
Economic Problems of National Unification
(1993);
North Korea: Insights into Economy and Living
(Korean-German Chamber of Commerce and Industry, 1991), in German.

“How Long Will the Red Flag Fly?”
:
On the Korea desk reaction, “North Korean Reaction to Roh-Gorbachev Meeting,” Department of State Briefing Paper, June 1, 1990, Confidential (declassified 1995). For the INR report, Douglas P. Mulholland, “Soviet Initiative in Asia,” Information Memorandum, May 30, 1990, Confidential (declassified 1995). On State’s view, “Talking Points for the President’s Use in His June 6 Meeting with President Roh,” Memorandum for the White House from the Department of State, June 2, 1990, Secret (declassified 1995).

The account of the Chinese meeting with Kim is from a former Chinese diplomat, interviews, January 23 and October 4, 1993. For Kanemaru’s trip, my account is based on interviews with a senior parliamentarian and a Foreign Ministry official who accompanied Kanemaru; interviews and writings of Hajimi Izumi and Masao Okonogi, leading Japanese experts on Korea; and an excellent reconstruction by Ushio Shioda, “What Was Discussed by the ‘Kanemaru North Korean Mission’?,”
Bungei Shunju
(August 1994). On the shift in Japanese policy, see B. C. Koh, “North Korea’s Approaches to the United States and Japan,” draft paper for a conference, “The Two Koreas in World Affairs,” November 1996. On “yellow skins” and “white skins,” Japanese official, interview, May 21, 1993. On Kanemaru’s apology to the United States, Michael H. Armacost,
Friends or Rivals?
(Columbia University Press, 1996), 147.

An account of the secret 1990 meetings can be found in “Secret Meeting Between Suh Dong Won and Kim Il Sung and Kim Jong Il,”
Monthly Chosun
(August 1994), in Korean. This account was verified for me by a former high-ranking ROK official. For Kim’s conciliatory speech, see
FBIS–East Asia
, May 24, 1990. On the disarmament proposal, William Taylor, “Shifting Korean Breezes,”
Washington Times
, June 6, 1990.

Soviet–South Korean Economic Negotiations
:
On Medvedev’s mission, see his
Collapse
(International Relations, 1994), in Russian. Roh on “exerting influence” from “M. S. Gorbachev with the President of ROK (Roh Tae Woo),” December 14, 1990, notes of conversation, from the Gorbachev archive, Moscow, in Russian. Roh’s “don’t worry” quote is from Georgi Toloraya interview, October 19, 1993. On the Saudi loan, see James A. Baker,
The Politics of Diplomacy
(G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1995), 294–295. For Roh’s “out of the question” quote, Kang Sung-chul, ‘“Foundation Laid for Ending Cold War’: Roh,”
KH
, December 18, 1990.

The Maslyukov exchange is from a confidential source. For military supply data, Nicholas Eberstadt et al., “The Collapse of Soviet and Russian Trade with the DPRK, 1989–1993,”
Korean Journal of National Unification
1 (1995). Han Yong Sup of the National Defense University, Seoul, has produced some different numbers that show the most precipitous drop in Soviet military assistance to North Korea in 1990 and a further drop in 1991. Roh money to Gorbachev, discussion with former Roh aide, June 1996. On Boldin’s comment, see his book
Ten Years That Shook the World (Basic
Books, 1994), 283.

C
HAPTER
10: C
HINA
S
HIFTS
I
TS
G
ROUND

On Chinese casualties in the Korean War, see Richard Whelan,
Drawing the Line
(Little, Brown, 1990), 373. The quotes from Chou and Kim are from Ilpyong J. Kim, “China in North Korean Foreign Policy,” paper for the East Asian Institute, Columbia University, May 31–June 1, 1996. The disparity between DPRK and ROK trade with China, Tai Ming Cheung, “More Advice than Aid,”
Far Eastern Economic Review
(June 6, 1991): 15.

A Visit to North Korea
:
My impressions of Pyongyang were recorded in my notebooks and in a
Washington Post Magazine
article, “Communism Lives,” September 22, 1991.

On the cutback on USSR-DPRK trade, see Nicholas Eberstadt, Marc Rubin, and Albina Tretyakova, “The Collapse of Soviet and Russian Trade with the DPRK, 1989–1993,”
Korean Journal of National Unification
4 (1995). On the cutback in DPRK energy consumption, see Chung Sik Lee, “Prospects for North Korea,” in
Democracy and Communism
(Korean Association of International Studies, 1995). For the history of “own style” socialism, “North Korean Brand of Socialism,”
Vantage
Point
(Seoul, February 1996), 42. The Pyongyang bombing quote is from Daewoo Lee, “Economic Consequences of the Korean War and the Vietnam War,’’
Korea Observer
(Autumn 1996): 413n.

My first interview with Kim Yong Nam was published on October 8, 1984, in
WP
under the headline “North Korea Says U.S. Proposals Merit Discussion.” Koh quote on Kim Yong Nam, Koh interview, October 25, 1993.

China Changes Course
:
Deng quote to Carter,
US-PRC Chronology
, 75. Sino-ROK trade figures, Kim Sung Yoon, “Prospects for Seoul’s Entering Relations with Beijing and the Effects on Inter-Korean Relations,”
East Asia Review
4, no. 2 (1992). Sino-DPRK trade, Nicholas Eberstadt (unattributed author), “China’s Trade with the DPRK, 1990–1994: Pyongyang’s Thrifty New Patron,” North Korea Trade Project Memorandum, US Bureau of the Census, May 1995. On the workings of China economic committee, former South Korean official, interview, October 27, 1995.

On the North Korean protests about the hijacking negotiation, “Chinese Hijackers Sentenced,”
Facts on File
(1983): 632. Torpedo boat crisis, Richard L. Walker interview, March 30, 1995. Deng’s refusal of massive military aid, former Chinese official, interview, October 4, 1993. Roh’s medical doctor emissary, Kim Hak Joon interview, December 20, 1993. The “no filter” quote, former Roh Tae Woo aide, interview, March 14, 1995.

On Roh’s lobbying after Tiananmen, Kim Hak Joon, “The Establishment of South Korean–Chinese Diplomatic Relations,” paper for American Enterprise Institute and George Washington University conference, December 2–3, 1993. On unofficial Sunkyung contacts, Lee Sun Sok interview, November 24, 1994. Trade offices, Roh Jae Won interview, December 3, 1993.

On the new Chinese policy on DPRK trade, Ilpyong Kim, “North Korea’s Relations with China,” in
Foreign Relations of North Korea
(Sejong Institute, 1994), 265. Lee Sang Ok–Qian Qichen meeting, Lee interview, October 26, 1993. Roh-Qian meeting, from memorandum of conversation, “Dialogue with Foreign Minister Qian Qichen—11/12/91,” in Korean. Roh Tae Woo on Qian’s “kowtow,” Kim Hak Joon interview, December 20, 1993.

China’s 1992 normalization priority, former Chinese official, interview, December 2, 1993. On the April 13, 1992, meeting, interviews with Lee Sang Ok, October 26, 1993; Roh Jae Won, December 3, 1993. On Taiwan envoy’s arguments, Lee Sang Ok interview. On the Taiwan threat to expand trade with the DPRK, Kim Hak Joon, “The Establishment of South Korean–Chinese Diplomatic Relations,” 11. The source is Kim’s diary, which he kept while he was an official of the Blue House. On China’s face-saving statements to the DPRK, Japanese diplomat, interview, November 8, 1993. Kim Yong Nam’s quote on PRC-ROK normalization, Don Oberdorfer, “N. Korea Says U.S. Blocks Progress on Nuclear Inspection,”
WP
, September 29, 1992.

C
HAPTER
11: J
OINING THE
N
UCLEAR
I
SSUE

Kim Chong Whi quote from my personal journal, November 15, 1991.

The Origins of the Nuclear Program
:
On Japanese and Soviet early activities, Joseph Bermudez interview, 1992. See also Bruce Cumings, “Spring Thaw for Korea’s Cold Wax?,”
Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
(April 1992): 17. MacArthur-Ridgway requests, Cumings, “Spring Thaw,” 18–19. For Eisenhower’s claims, see Michael J. Mazarr,
North Korea and the Bomb
(St. Martin’s Press, 1995), 15–16. Nixon also made this claim on several occasions, including one I covered in 1968. Dubna
activities, Alexandre Y. Mansourov, “The Origins, Evolution, and Current Politics of the North Korean Nuclear Program,”
Nonproliferation Review
(Spring–Summer 1995): 25–26.

On the exchange of Hungarian Embassy cables, see
CWIHP
, Working Paper 53, Documents 28 and 29, 55–56.

On refusing the DPRK request for nuclear weapons, the quote is from a former Chinese Foreign Ministry official, interview, July 6, 1993. The Japanese expert is Major General (retired) Katsuichi Tsukamoto (executive director of the Research Institute for Peace and Security, Tokyo), interview, July 30, 1993. On Kim’s 1974 request, Bermudez interview. Russian intelligence information from Mansourov, “Origins, Evolution,”26.