The Undivided Past (44 page)

  79.
J. Cuno,
Who Owns Antiquity? Museums and the Battle over Our Ancient Heritage
(Princeton, 2008), pp. 68–70, and references cited there; N. Matar,
Islam in Britain, 1558–1685
(Cambridge, 1998); Matar,
Turk, Moors and Englishmen in the Age of Discovery
(Cambridge, 1999); Matar,
In the Lands of the Christians: Arabic Travel Writing in the Seventeenth Century
(London, 2003).

  80.
O’Shea,
Sea of Faith
, pp. 8–9.

  81.
N. Z. Davis,
Trickster Travels: A Sixteenth-Century Muslim Between Worlds
(New York, 2006). For a similar (Jewish) example of such mobility, from about half a century later, see M. Garcia-Arenal and G. Wiegers,
A Man of Three Worlds: Samuel Pallache, a Moroccan Jew in Catholic and Protestant Europe
(Baltimore, 2003).

  82.
C. Geertz, “Among the Infidels,”
New York Review of Books
, March 23, 2006, pp. 23–24.

  83.
Elliott, “Question of Coexistence,” pp. 39, 42; Karabell,
People of the Book
, pp. 8, 279–81.

  84.
Sir S. Runciman,
A History of the Crusades
, vol. 3,
The Kingdom of Acre
(Cambridge, 1955), p. 480.

  85.
Fletcher,
Cross and the Crescent
, p. 158.

  86.
For two recent examples of such a more measured approach, see T. Ashbridge,
The Crusades: The War for the Holy Land
(London, 2009); J. Phillips,
Holy Warriors: A Modern History of the Crusades
(London, 2009).

  87.
Karabell,
People of the Book
, p. 8; Dalrymple, “Truth About Muslims,” p. 34; Bulliet,
Islamo-Christian Civilization
, p. 45.

  88.
F. Fernández-Armesto, “Struggle, What Struggle?”
Sunday Times
,
Culture
, May 4, 2003, p. 43.

  89.
Porter,
Gibbon
, p. 132.

  90.
S. Freud,
Civilization and Its Discontents
(New York, 1989 ed.), p. 72; p. Baldwin,
The Narcissism of Minor Differences: How America and Europe Are Alike
(Oxford, 2009), p. 10.

  91.
Kaplan,
Divided by Faith
, pp. 2, 128–29.

  92.
G. Parker, ed.,
The Thirty Years War
(New York, 1984), pp. 210–11; p. H. Wilson,
Europe’s Tragedy: A History of the Thirty Years War
(London, 2008), pp. 779–821; MacCulloch,
The Reformation
, pp. xx–xxi, 485, 671–72; J. H. Elliott,
Europe Divided, 1559–1598
(London, 1968), pp. 388–97.

  93.
S. Clark,
Thinking with Demons: The Idea of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe
(Oxford, 1997), pp. 64, 377.

  94.
Kaplan,
Divided by Faith
, pp. 26, 34–38, 47.

  95.
Wilson,
Europe’s Tragedy
, p. 465.

  96.
K. V. Thomas, “Speak of the Devil,”
New York Review of Books
, April 27, 2006, p. 34.

  97.
E. Cameron,
Interpreting Christian History: The Challenge of the Church’s Past
(Oxford, 2005), pp. 131–44.

  98.
J.-L. Quantin,
The Church of England and Christian Antiquity: The Construction of a Confessional Identity in the Seventeenth Century
(Oxford, 2009); P. Kewes, ed.,
The Uses of History in Early Modern England
(San Marino, Calif., 2006); S. Ditchfield,
Liturgy, Sanctity and History in Tridentine Italy: Pietro Maria Campi and the Preservation of the Particular
(Cambridge, 1995). For suggestive treatments of the Protestant and Catholic histories of the English Reformation see, respectively, R. O’Day,
The Debate on the English Reformation
(London, 1986); J. Vidmar,
English Catholic Historians and the English Reformation, 1585–1954
(Brighton, 2005).

  99.
Kaplan,
Divided by Faith
, p. 102.

100.
Ibid., pp. 150–51.

101.
Ibid., p. 130.

102.
MacCulloch,
The Reformation
, pp. 226–31, 302–3; P. Matheson,
Cardinal Contarini at Regensburg
(Oxford, 1972); D. Nugent,
Ecumenism in the Age of the Reformation: The Colloquy of Poissy
(Cambridge, Mass., 1974); E. Tongle, “A Mini–‘Colloquy of Poissy’ in Brittany: Inter-confessional Dialogue in Nantes in 1562,” in L. Racaut and A. Ryrie, eds.,
Moderate Voices in the European Reformation
(Aldershot, 2005), pp. 51–69.

103.
L. Racaut and A. Ryrie, “Introduction: Between Coercion and Persuasion,” in ibid., pp. 2, 12.

104.
Kaplan,
Divided by Faith
, pp. 15–22; H. R. Guiggisberg,
Sebastian Castellio, 1515–1563: Humanist and Defender of Religious Toleration in a Confessional Age
(Aldershot, 2003).

105.
M. Greengrass, “Conclusion: Moderate Voices: Mixed Messages,” in
Racaut and Ryrie,
Moderate Voices in the European Reformation
, pp. 208–11; Q. Skinner,
The Foundations of Modern Political Thought
, 2 vols. (Cambridge, 1978), vol. 2, p. 249.

106.
Kaplan,
Divided by Faith
, pp. 111–12.

107.
MacCulloch,
The Reformation
, pp. 262–63, 343–44, 471–73, 677.

108.
Wilson,
Europe’s Tragedy
, pp. 9–10, 377; Wilson, “Dynasty, Constitution, and Confession: The Role of Religion in the Thirty Years War,”
International History Review
30 (2008): 473–514.

109.
MacCulloch,
The Reformation
, pp. 495–501.

110.
Wilson,
Europe’s Tragedy
, pp. 758–62.

111.
Kaplan,
Divided by Faith
, p. 12.

112.
R. W. Scribner, “Preconditions of Tolerance and Intolerance in Sixteenth-Century Germany,” in O. P. Grell and R. W. Scribner, eds.,
Tolerance and Intolerance in the European Reformation
(Cambridge, 1996), pp. 34, 38.

113.
Kaplan,
Divided by Faith
, p. 131; C. Ginzburg,
The Cheese and the Worms: The Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller
(Baltimore, 1992), pp. 9–10, 49–51, 62.

114.
Ibid., p. 76.

115.
Walsham,
Charitable Hatred
, pp. 11, 20–21, 26–30, 207–8.

116.
R. Muchembled, introduction to E. Andor and I. G. Toth, eds.,
Frontiers of Faith: Religious Exchange and the Constitution of Religious Identities, 1400–1750
(Budapest, 2001), p. 4.

117.
Kaplan,
Divided by Faith
, pp. 134–35, 144–48, 172–90; Kaplan,
Calvinists and Libertines: Confession and Community in Utrecht, 1578–1620
(Oxford, 1995), p. 27.

118.
Kaplan,
Divided by Faith
, pp. 217–45.

119.
Ibid., p. 251.

120.
Ibid., pp. 254–93.

121.
Walsham,
Charitable Hatred
, p. 12.

122.
S. B. Schwartz,
All Can Be Saved: Religious Tolerance and Salvation in the Iberian Atlantic World
(London, 2008), pp. 84–87.

123.
Elliott, “Question of Coexistence,” p. 42.

124.
M. Macmillan,
Dangerous Games: The Uses and Abuses of History
(New York, 2009), pp. 73–78.

125.
V. Smith,
Akbar: The Great Mogul
(Oxford, 1917), p. 257; A. Sen,
The Argumentative Indian: Writings on Indian History, Culture and Identity
(London, 2005), pp. xii, 17–19, 76, 274, 287–93.

126.
D. Barenboim,
Everything Is Connected: The Power of Music
(London, 2008), pp. 43–44, 60–74. See also J. Goldberg,
A Muslim and a Jew Across the Middle East Divide
(New York, 2006).

127.
Sen,
Argumentative Indian
, p. 25.

128.
J. Wolffe, “Contentious Christians: Protestant-Catholic Conflict Since the Reformation,” in Wolffe,
Religion in History
, p. 98.

129.
Karabell,
People of the Book
, p. 182. Ironically enough, given his view of the all-encompassing religious confrontations between “
Christianity” and “
Islam,” Andrew Wheatcroft grudgingly agrees: “Very few, in the East or in the West, in the past as in the present,” he notes, “voluntarily lived their lives
wholly
according to the Holy Books and the Laws. Most people spent their days in conformity to the mores of their own group and community.” In this, at least, he is surely correct. Wheatcroft,
Infidels
, p. 308, emphasis in original text.

130.
J. Fulton,
The Tragedy of Belief: Division, Politics and Religion in Ireland
(Oxford, 1991), pp. 176–77, 180; M. Elliott,
The Catholics of Ulster: A History
(London, 2000), pp. 458–60; D. H. Akenson,
Intolerance: The E-Coli of the Human Mind
(Canberra, 2004), p. 60.

131.
Fulton,
Tragedy of Belief
, pp. 180–81.

132.
Elliott,
Catholics of Ulster
, p. 459.

133.
Fulton,
Tragedy of Belief
, p. 187.

134.
M. Elliott,
When God Took Sides: Religion and Identity in Ireland—Unfinished Histor
y (Oxford, 2008), p. 4.

135.
See, for example, Ginzburg,
Cheese and the Worms
, pp. 37–39.

    1.
C. de Gaulle,
Memoirs of Hope: Renewal, 1958–62; Endeavour, 1962–
(London, 1971), pp. 3–4, 301. For France’s “natural” yet “altering” boundaries, see P. Sahlins, “Natural Frontiers Revisited: France’s Boundaries Since the Seventeenth Century,”
American Historical Review
95 (1990): 1423–51.

    2.
M. Howard,
War and the Nation State
(Oxford, 1978), pp. 11, 15; D. Cannadine,
Making History Now and Then: Discoveries, Controversies and Explorations
(London, 2008), pp. 173–74; E. J. Hobsbawm,
The Age of Empire, 1875–1914
(London, 1987), pp. 142–64.

    3.
For this essentially “modernist” interpretation, see especially B. Anderson,
Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism
(London, 1983), pp. 46, 81, 191; E. Gellner,
Nations and Nationalism
(Oxford, 1983), pp. 25, 35–38, 51–55; Gellner,
Nationalism
(London, 1997), p. 13; E. J. Hobsbawm,
Nations and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality
(2nd ed., Cambridge, 1992), pp. 5, 9–10, 14; J. Breuilly,
Nationalism and the State
(2nd ed., Manchester, 1993), p. 85. For the nineteenth century as the century of “nation making,” see W. Bagehot,
Physics and Politics
(London, 1887), chs. 3 and 4.

    4.
G. M. Trevelyan to John Maynard Keynes, February 1905, quoted in
D. Cannadine,
G. M. Trevelyan: A Life in History
(London, 1992), p. 63; I. Tyrrell,
Transnational Nation: United States History in Global Perspective since 1789
(London, 2007), p. 3.

    5.
F. Braudel,
The Identity of France
, vol. 1,
History and Environment
(London, 1988), pp. 18–19, 21–22; S. Berger, “A Return to the National Paradigm? National History Writing in Germany, Italy, France and Britain from 1945 to the Present,”
Journal of Modern History
77 (2005): 654–55; J. H. Elliott,
National and Comparative History
(Oxford, 1991), p. 20.

    6.
Braudel,
History and Environment
, pp. 15, 17, 18–19, 23–25; S. L. Kaplan, “Long-Run Lamentations: Braudel on France,”
Journal of Modern History
63 (1991): 341.

    7.
F. Braudel,
On History
(Chicago, 1980), p. 191; J. Jackson, “Historians and the Nation in Contemporary France,” in S. Berger, M. Donovan, and K. Passmore, eds.,
Writing National Histories: Western Europe Since 1800
(London, 1999), pp. 241–42.

    8.
F. Braudel,
The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II
, 2 vols. (London, 1972), vol. 2, p. 901.

    9.
Kaplan, “Long-Run Lamentations,” p. 342; L. Hunt, “French History in the Last Twenty Years: The Rise and Fall of the
Annales
Paradigm,”
Journal of Contemporary History
21 (1986): 209–13; S. Kinser, “
Annaliste
Paradigm? The Geohistorical Structuralism of Fernand Braudel,”
American Historical Review
86 (1981): 63–105.

  10.
For recent surveys, see Berger, Donovan, and Passmore,
Writing National Histories.

  11.
For another such definition, see J. J. Kellas,
The Politics of Nationalism and Ethnicity
(London, 1992), pp. 2–3.

  12.
For a discussion of the differing views of those scholars who see nations and national identity as coterminous with “modernity,” and those who believe them to be “perennial,” see A. D. Smith, “National Identities: Modern and Medieval?” in S. Forde, L. Johnson, and A. V. Murray, eds.,
Concepts of National Identity in the Middle Ages
(Leeds, 1995), pp. 22–24; C. Kidd,
British Identities Before Nationalism: Ethnicity and Nationhood in the Atlantic World, 1600–1800
(Cambridge, 1999), pp. 1–6.

  13.
E. J. Hobsbawm,
Interesting Times: A Twentieth-Century Life
(London, 2002), p. 310. There has also been a massive outpouring of books on nationalism and national identity by pundits, sociologists, and political scientists; for one such work, which defines national identity almost exclusively in political terms, see W. Norman,
Negotiating Nationalism: Nation-Building, Federalism and Secession in the Multinational State
(Oxford, 2006), pp. 33–37.

  14.
L. Johnson, “Imagining Communities: Medieval and Modern,” in
Forde, Johnson, and Murray,
National Identity in the Middle Ages
, pp. 1–20; S. Reynolds, “The Idea of the Nation as a Political Community,” in L. Scales and O. Zimmer, eds.,
Power and the Nation in European History
(Cambridge, 2005), pp. 54–66; A. Hastings,
The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism
(Cambridge, 1997), pp. 1–13; T. C. W. Blanning,
The Culture of Power and the Power of Culture: Old Regime Europe, 1660–1789
(Oxford, 2002), pp. 15–25; T. Turville-Petre,
England the Nation: Language, Literature and National Identity, 1290–1340
(Oxford, 1996), p. v; C. Hirsch,
The Origins of Nationalism: An Alternative History from Ancient Rome to Early Modern Germany
(Cambridge, 2011), pp. 1–33.

  15.
Smith, “National Identities: Modern and Medieval?” pp. 29–32, 46; S. Grosby,
Nationalism: A Very Short Introduction
(Oxford, 2005), pp. 57–72.

  16.
Hastings,
Construction of Nationhood
, p. 18.

  17.
Ibid., p. 186; Blanning,
Culture of Power
, p. 23.

  18.
H. Koht, “The Dawn of Nationalism in Europe,”
American Historical Review
52 (1947): 266.

  19.
M. T. Clanchy,
England and Its Rulers, 1066–1307
(Oxford, 2006 ed.), pp. 240–41.

  20.
R. R. Davies, “The Peoples of Britain and Ireland, 1100–1400: I. Identities,”
Transactions of the Royal Historical Society
, 6th ser., 4 (1994): 4–5.

  21.
Ibid., p. 7; S. Foot, “The Making of Angelcyn: English Identity before the Norman Conquest,”
Transactions of the Royal Historical Society
, 6th ser., 6 (1996): 28.

  22.
G. R. Elton,
The English
(Oxford, 1993), pp. 27–28; J. Campbell, “The Late Anglo-Saxon State: A Maximum View,”
Proceedings of the British Academy
87 (1995): 47; A. P. Smyth, “The Emergence of English Identity, 700–1000,” in A. P. Smyth, ed.,
Medieval Europeans: Studies in Ethnic Identity and National Perspectives in Medieval Europe
(London, 1998), pp. 24–52; Foot, “Making of Angelcyn,” pp. 37, 49.

  23.
R. R. Davies, “The Peoples of Britain and Ireland, 1100–1400: II: Names, Boundaries and Regnal Solidarities,”
Transactions of the Royal Historical Society
, 6th ser., 5 (1995): 12; Davies, “The Peoples of Britain and Ireland, 1100–1400: IV: Language and Historical Mythology,”
Transactions of the Royal Historical Society
, 6th ser., 7 (1997): 12, 19–20; J. Gillingham,
The English in the Twelfth Century: Imperialism, National Identity and Political Values
(Woodbridge, 2000), pp. xvi, 113–44; Turville-Petre,
England the Nation
, p. 216; Hastings,
Construction of Nationhood
, pp. 15, 35–38, 47–48. But cf. D. Pearsall, “Chaucer and Englishness,”
Proceedings of the British Academy
101 (1998): 77–99.

  24.
S. Reynolds,
Kingdoms and Communities in Western Europe, 900–1300
, 2nd ed. (Oxford, 1997), pp. lix, 250–92.

  25.
Blanning,
Culture of Power
, p. 21; Koht, “Dawn of Nationalism,” p. 277; L. Scales,
The Shaping of German Identity, Authority and Crisis, 1245–1414
(Cambridge, 2012), passim.

  26.
Blanning,
Culture of Power
, p. 21; M. G. Dietz, “Patriotism,” in T. Ball, J. Farr, and R. L. Hanson, eds.,
Political Innovation and Conceptual Change
(Cambridge, 1989), p. 181.

  27.
Davies, “Identities,” p. 10.

  28.
J. Gillingham, “1066 and All That Elton,”
Transactions of the Royal Historical Society
, 6th ser., 7 (1997): 330; Gillingham,
English in the Twelfth Century
, p. xvi.

  29.
Davies, “Identities,” pp. 19–20; Davies, “Names, Boundaries, and Regnal Solidarities,” pp. 16–17; Reynolds, “Idea of the Nation,” p. 58.

  30.
Blanning,
Culture of Power
, p. 21; Koht, “Dawn of Nationalism,” p. 279; P. Sahlins,
Boundaries: The Making of France and Spain in the Pyrenees
(Los Angeles, 1989), p. 271.

  31.
O. Ranum, introduction to O. Ranum, ed.,
National Consciousness, History and Political Culture in Early-Modern Europe
(Baltimore, 1975), p. 1.

  32.
T. C. W. Blanning,
The Pursuit of Glory: Europe, 1648–1815
(London, 2007), pp. 306–07.

  33.
Ranum, introduction to
National Consciousness
, p. 5; Hastings,
Construction of Nationhood
, pp. 99, 114.

  34.
Hastings,
Construction of Nationhood
, pp. 56–57; L. Greenfield,
Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity
(Cambridge, Mass., 1992), pp. 60–70. There is, of course, a problem about Shakespeare’s claim that England occupied the whole of the “sceptered isle” of Great Britain, since large parts of it were inhabited by the Scots and the Welsh.

  35.
Blanning,
Culture of Power
, p. 22; J. O. Bartley,
Teague, Shenkin, and Sawney: Being an Historical Study of the Earliest Irish, Welsh and Scottish Characters in English Plays
(Cork, 1954), passim.

  36.
M. J. Rodriguez-Salgado, “Christians, Civilized and Spanish: Multiple Identities in Sixteenth-Century Spain,”
Transactions of the Royal Historical Society
, 6th ser., 8 (1998): 237–38.

  37.
Blanning,
Culture of Power
, pp. 290–301; Blanning,
Pursuit of Glory
, pp. 305, 310–12.

  38.
For which see Greenfield,
Nationalism
, chs. 2–4; Blanning,
Culture of Power
, chs. 6–7.

  39.
Schulze,
States, Nations and Nationalism
, pp. 111–12; but cf. D. Bell,
The Cult of the Nation in France: Inventing Nationalism, 1680–1800
(Cambridge, Mass., 2001), pp. 5–6.

  40.
Ranum, introduction to
National Consciousness
, pp. 12–13; Blanning,
Pursuit of Glory
, p. 307.

  41.
But cf. Turville-Petre,
England the Nation
, p. 40.

  42.
Hastings,
Construction of Nationhood
, pp. 185–200.

  43.
J. H. Elliott,
Spain, Europe and the Wider World, 1500–1800
(London, 2009), pp. 3–24.

  44.
Blanning,
Pursuit of Glory
, p. 307.

  45.
Ranum, introduction to
National Consciousness
, pp. 2–5, Elliott,
Spain, Europe and the Wider World
, p. xvi.

  46.
C. Tilly, “Reflections on the History of European State-Making,” in C. Tilly, ed.,
The Formation of National States in Western Europe
(Princeton, 1975), p. 15.

  47.
M. Howard,
War in European History
, 2nd ed. (Oxford, 2009), pp. 11, 20–21.

  48.
Ibid., pp. 20–37, 70–73, 110–11.

  49.
Ibid., pp. 72–73.

  50.
R. Bartlett,
The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization, and Cultural Change, 950–1350
(Princeton, 1993), p. 196.

  51.
R. J. W. Evans,
The Language of History and the History of Language
(Oxford, 1998), pp. 13–20.

  52.
Bell,
Cult of the Nation
, pp. 16, 171–73; Blanning,
Culture of Power
, pp. 234–36.

  53.
D. Armitage and M. Braddick, introduction to D. Armitage and M. Braddick, eds.,
The British Atlantic World, 1500–1800
(Basingstoke, UK, 2002), pp. 6–7; Elliott,
Spain, Europe and the Wider World
, pp. 173–210; Rodriguez-Salgado, “Multiple Identities in Sixteenth-Century Spain,” pp. 238–51.

  54.
Blanning,
Pursuit of Glory
, pp. 319–21; Bell,
Cult of the Nation
, pp. 9–14; Elliott,
Spain, Europe and the Wider World
, pp. 211–29; J. Adelman, “An Age of Imperial Revolutions,”
American Historical Review
113 (2008): 319–40.

  55.
Howard,
War in European History
, pp. 93–115.

  56.
C. S. Maier, “Consigning the Twentieth Century to History: Alternative Narratives for the Modern Era,”
American Historical Review
105 (2000): 807–8.

  57.
Ibid., p. 814.

  58.
Ibid., pp. 816, 819, 823.

  59.
E. W. Anderson, “Geopolitics: International Boundaries as Fighting Places,”
Journal of Strategic Studies
22 (1999): 127–28; Lord Curzon of Kedleston,
Frontiers: The Romanes Lecture of 1907
(Oxford, 1908), p. 7.

  60.
Maier, “Consigning the Twentieth Century to History,” pp. 820–21; N. Faith,
The World the Railways Made
(London, 1990), pp. 58–70.

  61.
G. L. Mosse,
The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars Through the Third Reich
(New York, 1975), esp. pp. 1–3; E. Weber,
Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870–1914
(Stanford, 1975), esp. pp. ix–xi, 485–86.

  62.
Hobsbawm,
Age of Empire
, pp. 84–111, 142–64; Howard,
War in European History
, pp. 110–11; Howard,
War and the Nation State
, pp. 8–12.

  63.
Cannadine,
Making History Now and Then
, pp. 173–78; G. G. Iggers, “Nationalism and Historiography, 1789–1996: The German Example in Historical Perspective”; B. Stuchtey, “Literature, Liberty and the Life of the Nation: British Historiography from Macaulay to Trevelyan”; C. Crossley, “History as a Principle of Legitimation in France (1820–48)”; P. Bahners, “National Unification and Narrative Unity: The Case of Ranke’s
German History,”
all in Berger, Donovan, and Passmore,
Writing National Histories
, pp. 15–29, 30–46, 49–56, 57–68; Elliott,
National and Comparative History
, pp. 17–24.