American Experiment (433 page)

Marching as to War

361
[
1961 Freedom Rides
]: Zinn, ch. 3; Carson, ch. 3; Raines, book 1, ch. 3; Morris, pp. 231-36; James Peck,
Freedom Ride
(Simon and Schuster, 1962), chs. 8-9; Forman, ch. 18; Brauer, pp. 98-111; James Farmer,
 Lay Bare the Heart: An Autobiography of the Civil Rights Movement
(Arbor House, 1985), chs. 17-18; Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.,
Robert Kennedy and His Times
(Houghton Mifflin, 1978), pp. 294-300; Wofford, pp. 151-58; Meier and Rudwick, ch. 5; Oates, pp. 174-78.

[“
Movement on wheels
”]: Raines, p. 110.

[“
As we entered
”]: Peck, p. 128.

[
FBI informant on beatings
]: Gary Thomas Rowe, Jr., quoted in Schlesinger,
Robert Kennedy,
p. 295.

[“
Stop them
”]: quoted in Wofford, p. 153.

[“
Have been cooling off
”]: quoted in Farmer, p. 206.

[“
All on probation
”]:
ibid.,
p. 207.

[
King-Kennedy exchange
]: quoted in Schlesinger,
Robert Kennedy,
pp. 299-300.

364
[
Albany
]: Carson, ch. 5; Garrow,
Bearing,
ch. 4; Morris, pp. 239-50; Oates, pp. 188- 201; Brauer, pp. 168-79; Zinn, ch. 7; Forman, ch. 33.

[“
Just speak for us
”]: William G. Anderson, quoted in Oates, p. 189.

[
Sherrod on the singing
]: quoted in Forman, p. 247; see also Bernice Johnson Reagon, “Songs of the Civil Rights Movement, 1955-1965: A Study in Culture History” (doctoral dissertation; Howard University, 1975), chs. 2, 3, 5; Reagon, “In Our Hands: Thoughts on Black Music,”
Sing Out!,
vol. 24, no. 6 (January-February 1976), pp. l ff.

[
Brauer on
“
Pritchett
’
s jails
”]: Brauer, p. 177.

365
[
Meredith
]: Metcalf, pp. 219-54; Brauer, ch. 7; Schlesinger,
Robert Kennedy,
pp. 317- 27; Navasky, ch. 4
passim.

[“
Nobody handpicked me
”]: quoted in Schlesinger,
Robert Kennedy,
p. 317. [
Barrett on
“
that boy
”]:
ibid.,
p. 319.

366
[“
Sense of Southern history
”]: Edwin Guthman, quoted in
ibid.,
p. 325; see also Brauer, p. 204.

[“
Republic had been trapped
”]: Schlesinger,
Robert Kennedy,
p. 326.

[“
Breaking out
”]: quoted in
ibid.,
p. 327.

[
Black disagreements over goals and strategy
]: see Carson, ch. 3
passim:
Garrow,
Bearing,
pp. 216-30
passim;
Forman, ch. 31; Martin Luther King, Jr.,
Why We Can
’
t Wait
(Harper, 1964), chs. 2, 8
passim;
Lomax, ch. 12.

367
[
The
“
magic city
”]; see King,
Why We Can
’
t Wait,
pp. 37-43; Morris, pp. 257-58; Silver,
passim.

[
Birmingham campaign
]: King,
Why We Can
’
t Wait;
Garrow,
Bearing,
pp. 231-64; Oates, pp. 209-43; Morris, pp. 250-74; Raines, book 1, ch. 1, part1; Forman, ch. 40. 367-8 [“
Letter from Birmingham Jail
”]: in King,
Why We Can
’
t Wait,
ch. 5, quoted at pp. 82, 83, 87, 91; see also Wesley T. Mott, “The Rhetoric of Martin Luther King. Jr :
Letter from Birmingham Jail
”
, Phylon,
vol. 36, no. 4 (Winter 1975), pp. 411-21.

368
[
The movement and the media
]: see Garrow,
Bearing,
pp. 247-50; Catherine A. Barnes,
Journey from Jim Crow: The Desegregation of Southern Transit
(Columbia University Press, 1983), p. 203; Mary King, esp. ch. 6.

[“
Fan the fames
”]: quoted in I.ois L. Duke, “Cultural Redefinition of News: Racial Issues in South Carolina, 1954-1984” (doctoral dissertation; University of South Carolina, 1979), p. 175.

[“
Doesn
’
t live down here
”]: quoted in Garrow,
Bearing,
p. 257.

369
[
Kennedy on photo of dog attack
]: quoted in Brauer, p. 238.

[“
Above all, it is wrong
”]: Special Message to the Congress on Civil Rights, February 28, 1963, in
Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States. John F. Kennedy
(U.S. Government Printing Of?ìce, 1962-64), vol. 3, pp. 221-30, quoted at p. 222; see also Brauer, pp. 211-29; Theodore C. Sorensen,
Kennedy
(Harper, 1965), pp. 493-96; Oates, p. 214.

[
King on Kennedy proposals
]: quoted in Brauer, p. 228.

[
Robert Kennedy
’
s meeting with blacks
]: Schlesinger,
Robert Kennedy,
pp. 330-35, Smith quoted at p. 332, Horne at p. 333, Kennedy at p. 334, Schlesinger at p. 335; Brauer, pp. 242-45.

370
[
Tuscaloosa confrontation
]: Brauer, pp. 252-59; Marshall Frady,
Wallace
(New American Library, 1975), pp148-70; Schlesinger,
Robert Kennedy,
pp. 337-42; see also Robert J. Norrell,
Reaping the Whirlwind: The Civil Rights Movement in Tuskegee
(Knopf, 1985), chs. 9-10.

[“
Draw the line
”]: quoted in Jody Carlson,
George C. Wallace and the Politics of Powerlessness
(Transaction Books, 1981), p. 24.

[“
Segregation now
!”]: quoted in Frady, p. 142.

[“
Out-nigguhed
”]: quoted in Carlson, p. 22.

[“
Negro baby born
”]: in
Kennedy Public Papers,
vol. 3, pp. 468-71, quoted at pp. 468, 469.

370-1
[
Kennedy
’
s proposals and their reception
]: June 19, 1963, in
ibid.,
vol. 3, pp. 483-94; Sorensen, pp. 496-504; Oates, pp. 243-45; Sundquist, pp. 259-65; Brauer, pp. 245-52, 259-64, and ch10
passim:
see also Steven F. Lawson, “ ‘I Got It from
The New York Times
’: Lyndon Johnson and the Kennedy Civil Rights Program,”
Journal of Negro History,
vol. 67, no. 2 (Summer 1982), pp. 159-72.

371
[
March on Washington
]:
New York Times,
August 29, 1963, pp. 1, 16-21; Oates, pp. 246-47, 256-64; Garrow,
Bearing,
pp. 265-86
passim
; Schlesinger,
Robert Kennedy,
pp. 349-52; Carson, ch. 7; Brauer, pp. 272-73, 290-93; Forman, ch. 43.

[“
May seem ill-timed
”]: quoted in Schlesinger,
Robert Kennedy,
p. 350. [
Lewis
’
s speech at March
]: Carson, pp. 91-95, quoted at p. 95.

371-2
[
King
’
s speech at March
]: Oates, pp. 261-62, quoted at p. 262.

372
[
Post-March meeting with Kennedy
]: Garrow,
Bearing,
p. 285.

[
Wilkins on Kennedy
]: quoted in Oates, p. 262.

[
Moody
]: Moody,
Coming of Age in Mississippi
(Dial, 1968), p. 275.

[“
Fuck that dream
”]: quoted in Schlesinger,
Robert Kennedy,
p. 351.

[
Evers shooting and Kennedy
]:
New York Times,
June 13, 1963, pp. 1, 12-13;
ibid.,
June 21, 1963, p. 14; Metcalf, pp. 195-218; Schlesinger,
Robert Kennedy,
pp. 344-45.

[
Arrests in South
]: see Theodore H. While,
The Making of the President: 1964
(Atheneum, 1965), p. 171.

[
Birmingham church bombing
]:
New York Times,
September 16, 1963, pp. 1, 26; Oates, pp. 267-69.

372-3
[
Dallas 1963
]: William Manchester,
The Death of a President
(Harper, 1967), pp. 34-51
passim;
Herbert S. Parmet,
JFK: The Presidency of John F. Kennedy
(Dial, 1983), pp. 340, 344-45.

373
[
WANTED FOR TREASON
]: quoted in Parmet, p. 340.

[
Kennedy in Texas
]:
ibid.,
pp. 341-46; Manchester, book 1
passim.

373
[“
That
’
ll add interest
”]: quoted in Parmet, p. 341.

[“
You know the French author
”]: Moynihan papers, Nixon Administration Papers, Subject File II, excerpt from interview, December 5, 1963, uncatalogued folder.

[“
Caught in cross currents
”]: quoted in James MacGregor Burns,
John Kennedy: A Political Profile
(Harcourt, 1960), p. 155.

[“
Historic crossroad
”]: Mark Stern, “Black Interest Group Pressure on the Executive: John F. Kennedy as Politician,” paper prepared for delivery at the 1987 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, King quoted at p. 51. [
Baker
’
s principle
]: quoted in Mary King, p. 456 (italics added).

We Shall Overcome

[
The Johnson White House and the civil rights struggle]:
Burke Marshall Papers, esp. boxes 17-19, John F. Kennedy Library.

[“
Talked long enough
”]: in
The Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Lyndon B. Johnson
(U.S. Government Printing Office, 1965-70), vol. 1, part 1, pp. 8-10, quoted at p. 9. On the ambivalence of LBJ over civil rights legislation when Vice President in 1963, as contrasted with his presidential leadership, see telephone conversation between LBJ and Theodore Sorensen, Edison Dictaphone recording, June 3, 1963, Lyndon B. Johnson Library.

376
[“
Resort to arson
”]: quoted in Charles Whalen and Barbara Whalen,
The Longest Debate: A Legislative History of the 1964 Civil Rights Act
(Seven Locks Press, 1985), p. 90.

[“
Nefarious bill
”]:
ibid.,
p. 91.

[
Smith and
“
sex
”
amendment
]:
ibid.,
pp. 115-17; Carl M. Brauer, “Women Activists, Southern Conservatives, and the Prohibition of Sex Discrimination in Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights
Act,
”
Journal of Southern History,
vol. 49, no. 1 (February 1983), pp. 37-56.

[
House passage of civil rights bill
]: Whalen and Whalen, p. 121; Sundquist, p. 266 and p. 266 n. 144; see also Joe R. Feagin, “Civil Rights Voting by Southern Congressmen,”
Journal of Politics,
vol. 34, no. 2 (May 1972), pp. 484-99.

[
Senate filibuster
]: Whalen and Whalen, chs. 5-7; Sundquist, pp. 267-69.

[“
To the last ditch
”]: Russell, quoted in Whalen and Whalen, p. 142.

[
Thurmond
’
s filibuster record
]:
ibid.,
p. 143.

377
[“
Billion dollar blackjack
”]:
ibid.,
p. 145.

[
Russell on lobbyists
]: quoted in Sundquist, p. 268.

[
Length of Senate debate
]: see
ibid.,
p. 267 n. 146.

[“
Bill can
’
t pass
”]: quoted in Whalen and Whalen, p. 148.

[
Aide on LBJ and Dirksen
]: quoted in Sundquist, p. 268.

377-8
[
Senate approval of cloture and bill
]:
ibid.,
pp. 269-70; Whalen and Whalen, pp. 199-200; see also Rowland Evans and Robert Novak,
Lyndon B. Johnson: The Exercise of Power
(New American Library, 1966), pp. 76-80.

[“
More abiding commitment
”]: in
Johnson Public Papers,
vol. 1, part 2, pp. 842-44, quoted at p. 843.

[
Provisions of civil rights bill
]: see Whalen and Whalen, pp. 239-42 (Appendix).

378-9
[
Hamer on Ruleville meeting
]: Hamer,
To Raise Our Bridges
(KIPCO, 1967), p. 12.

379
[
Hamer
]: Hamer; Raines, pp. 249-55; Zinn, pp. 93-96; Susan Kling, “Fannie Lou Hamer: Baptism by Fire,” in Pam McAllister, ed.,
Reweaving the Web of Life: Feminism and Nonviolence
(New Society, 1982), pp. 106-11; Mary King, pp. 140-44.

[“
Just listenin’ at ’em
”]: quoted in Raines, p. 249.

[
Hamer on literacy test
]:
ibid.,
p. 250. [“
Too yellow
”]: Hamer, p. 12.

[
Reprisals against Hamer
]:
ibid.,
p. 13; Zinn, p. 94; Raines, pp. 250-51.

[
Mississippi voter registration drive
]: Carson, chs. 4, 8, 9; Zinn, chs. 4-6; Forman, chs. 30, 34, 36, 38, 48; Sally Belfrage,
Freedom Summer
(Viking, 1965); Mary A. Rothschild,
A Case of Black and White: Northern Volunteers and the Southern Freedom Summers, 1964-1965
(Greenwood Press, 1982); Meier and Rudwick,
CORE,
ch. 9; Emily Stoper, “The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee: Rise and Fall of a Redemptive Organization,
” Journal of Black Studies,
vol. 8, no. 1 (September 1977), pp. 13-34; Bob Moses, “Mississippi: 1961-1962,”
Liberation,
vol. 14, no. 9 (January 1970), pp. 7-17; Cantarow and O’Malley, pp. 86-88; Seth Cagin and Philip Dray,
We Are Not Afraid
(Macmillan, 1988).

379
[
Baker
’
s mediation at Highlander
]: Carson, pp. 41-42.

380
[“
Born in prison
”]: quoted in Zinn, p. 80.

[
Hamer on jail beatings
]: Raines, pp. 253-54, quoted at p. 253; Hamer, p. 14.

[
Casting of
“
freedom ballots
”]: Zinn, pp. 98-101; Carson, pp. 97-98; Forman, pp. 354-56.

[
MFDP
]: Carson, pp. 108-9, 117; ‘‘Belfrage, ch. 12; Hanes Walton, Jr.,
Black Political Parties
(Free Press, 1972), pp. 80-95.

381
[“
Extraordinary inner sense
”]: Belfrage, p. 201.

[
MFDP at Democratic convention
]: Forman, pp. 384-97; Carson, pp. 123-28; Mary King, pp. 343-52; Belfrage, pp. 236-46; Walton, pp. 95-103; White, pp. 277-82; Silkoff, pp. 179-85; Evans and Novak, pp. 451-56.