Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (794 page)

A warm phase of the
DEVENSIAN
glaciation in northwest Europe dated to between 12000 and 9000 bc. The Windermere Interstadial has been correlated with Godwin's
POLLEN ZONE
II.

 
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An industrial monument in which a set of machinery dedicated to a particular purpose, usually grinding corn, is powered by the motion of a wheel to which a series of sails are attached so that it can be turned by the force of the wind, the machinery itself being housed in some kind of structure around or below the aerially mounted sails. In northern Europe windmills have been recorded from the 12th century
ad
onwards, and many remain in a form not unlike those common in the Middle Ages. By the 17th century windmills were a common sight in town and countryside. The earliest types were
postmills
where the whole structure revolves around a central wooden post rising from a ground frame comprising two intersecting beams known as cross-trees. These cross-trees were sometimes set in a round mound of earth and stone or rested on brick or stone piers. Above the ground frame was a superstructure containing the machinery that pivoted on the central post so that the whole thing could be turned to move the sails into an optimum position to take full advantage of the wind. From the 14th century
towermills
began to appear (also called smockmills) in which the greater part of the structure was stationary with only the cap at the top, carrying the sails, able to be rotated into the wind. Tower mills were therefore far more substantial, usually of timber on a brick or stone base, but occasionally having the whole tower of brick or stone. Archaeologically, early windmills of both main types are represented by low earth mounds or circular foundations.

 
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Archaic Stage hunter-gatherer communities living in and around the Sacramento Valley of California, North America, in the period 2300–500 bc. These groups shared an elaborate material culture characterized by ornamented tools and equipment. Most conspicuous are polished charm stones. Burials were accompanied by necklaces, pendants, and other objects. Hunting and fishing were important.

 
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One of the largest causewayed enclosures yet discovered in Britain. It has an area of about 8ha, and its outer ditch has a diameter of approximately 360m. The boundary earthworks comprise three roughly concentric rings of interrupted ditches which originally had internal banks. It is notable that the ditches do not lie around the top of the hill, but rather run down the northern slope. Windmill Hill was excavated on several occasions, most notably between 1925 and 1939 by Alexander Keiller , in 1957–8 by Isobel Smith , and in 1988 by Alasdair Whittle .The earliest occupation dates to about 3800 bc when there was a small unenclosed site in a woodland clearing. It was probably about 3500 bc that the enclosure was built, all three ditch circuits being open at broadly the same time. Within the enclosure ditches there is a considerable quantity of domestic rubbish (pottery, bones, flintworking waste, etc.). There was clear evidence of recutting in the ditches, suggesting that they were periodically cleared out. There were also a number of burials (mostly infants) on the ditch floors, and human bones were found scattered throughout the ditch fills. The enclosure ditches were not redug after about 2500 bc, although debris from later occupation, presumably from a settlement in the vicinity, found its way into the upper silting of the ditches. The purpose of the enclosure has been much debated. Isobel Smith suggested that it was a seasonal rallying point for dispersed farming communities who gathered there for festivals and trade, a view that is widely supported.
[Rep.: A. Whittle , J. Pollard , and C. Grigson , 1999,
The harmony of symbols. The Windmill Hill causewayed enclosure
. Oxford: Oxbow Books]

 
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Middle Neolithic culture defined in 1954 by Stuart Piggott as typical of communities occupying central southern England. Based on the cultural assemblage recovered from the type-site of
WINDMILL HILL
, the culture was founded upon mixed farming, especially cattle husbandry and the cultivation of wheat and barley. In addition to causewayed enclosures the population built long barrows that also provided repositories for the dead. The pottery was well made and frequently decorated. Trading connections with other parts of the British Isles and near continent were well attested through evidence for exchanges of stone axes and pottery. Radiocarbon testing relating to Windmill Hill Culture sites date them to the period 3600–3000 bc, although the term Windmill Hill Culture itself is now almost obsolete.

 
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